Occurrence of some organic UV filters in wastewater, in surface waters, and in fish from Swiss lakes
Abstract
Organic UV filters are used in personal care products such as sunscreen products, and in cosmetics, beauty creams, skin lotions, lipsticks, hair sprays, hair dyes, shampoos, and so forth. The compounds enter the aquatic environmentfrom showering, wash-off, washing (laundering), and so forth via wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) ("indirect inputs") and from recreational activities such as swimming and bathing in lakes and rivers ("direct inputs"). In this study, we investigated the occurrence of four important organic UV filter compounds (benzophenone-3, BP-3; 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, 4-MBC; ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate, EHMC; octocrylene, OC) in wastewater, and in water and fish from various Swiss lakes, using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric analyses. All four UV filters were present in untreated wastewater (WWTP influent) with a maximum concentration of 19 microg L(-1) for EHMC. The data indicate a seasonal variation with influent loads higher in the warmer season (June 2002) than in the colder one (April 2002). The influent loads were in the order EHMC > 4-MBC approximately BP-3 > OC. The concentrations in treated wastewater (WWTP effluent) were considerably lower, indicating substantial elimination in the plants. 4-MBC was usually the most prevalent compound (maximum concentration, 2.7 microg L(-1)), followed by BP-3, EHMC, and OC. UV filters were also detected in Swiss midland lakes and a river (Limmat) receiving inputs from WWTPs and recreational activities. However, all concentrations were low (<2-35 ng L(-1)); no UV filters (<2 ng L(-1)) were detected in a remote mountain lake. Data from passive sampling using semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) supported the presence of these UV filters in the lakes and the river and suggested some potential for accumulation of these compounds in biota. SPMD-derived water concentrations increased in the order Greifensee < Zürichsee < Hüttnersee. This order is reversed from that observed for methyl triclosan, used as a chemical marker for WWTP-derived lipophilic contaminants in the lakes. This indicated inputs of UV filters from sources other than WWTPs to the lakes during summer,for example,inputs from recreational activities. Fish (white fish, Coregonus sp.; roach, Rutilus rutilus; perch, Perca fluviatilis) from these lakes contained low but detectable concentrations of UV filters, in particular, 4-MBC (up to 166 ng g(-1) on a lipid basis). 4-MBC concentrations relative to methyl triclosan were lower in fish than in SPMDs exposed in the same lakes, suggesting that 4-MBC is less bioaccumulated than expected or metabolized in fish. The lipid-based bioconcentration factor (BCF(L)) estimated from the fish (roach) data and SPMD-derived water concentrations was about 1-2.3 x 10(4) and thus approximately 1 order of magnitude lower than expected from its Kow value.
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Personal care products released by swimmers could be potential precursors of chlorinated and oxidized or nitrogenous disinfection by-products.
“Apart from the commonly discussed NOM and BFA, PCPs released by swimmers could be the potential precursors of chlorinated and oxidized or nitrogenous DBPs (Balmer et al., 2005).”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Balmer et al., 2005
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Gago-Ferrero, P., Díaz-Cruz, M., & Barceló, D. (2011) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.04.003 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Liu, Y.-S., Ying, G.-G., Shareef, A., & Kookana, R. (2011) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2011.05.100 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
UV Filters: Challenges and Prospects
Jesus, A., Sousa, E., Cruz, M., Cidade, H., Lobo, J., & Almeida, I. (2022) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph15030263 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Kim, S., Jung, D., Kho, Y., & Choi, K. (2014) · Aquatic Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.07.004 · Cited by 130
“(Balmer et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialDevelopmental toxicity of UV filters and environmental exposure: a review.
Schlumpf, M., Durrer, S., Faass, O., Ehnes, C., Fuetsch, M., Gaille, C., Henseler, M., Hofkamp, L. E., Maerkel, K., Reolon, S., et al. (2008) · International Journal of Andrology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2605.2007.00856.x · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“There is good evidence that pharmaceuticals and ingredients of personal care products, including chemical UV filters, can spread to the biosphere and reach the food chain (Balmer et al., 2005; Kupper et al., 2006; Nakata et al., 2007; Schmid et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialPan, X.-X., Yan, L.-Q., Li, C.-G., Qu, R.-J., & Wang, Z.-Y. (2017) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2017.06.068 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Inputs of chemicals from recreational activities into the Norwegian coastal zone.
Langford, K., & Thomas, K. (2008) · Journal of Environmental Monitoring · doi:10.1039/b806198j · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Nieto, A., Borrull, F., Marcé, R. M., & Pocurull, E. (2009) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2009.05.061 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Apel, C., Tang, J., & Ebinghaus, R. (2018) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.051 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“UV stabilizers have been reportedworldwide inwater (Balmer et al., 2005; Cunha et al., 2015b; Kameda et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2014; Tsui et al., 2014), suspended particulatematter (Wick et al., 2016), house dust (Kim et al., , 21502 Geesthacht, Germany.”
BackgroundInfluentialSchmitt, C., Oetken, M., Dittberner, O., Wagner, M., & Oehlmann, J. (2008) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.031 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Most of these UV filters are highly lipophilic and hardly degradable in STPs and are therefore supposed to accumulate in the environment (Balmer et al., 2005; Buser et al., 2006).”
BackgroundYang, G., Xu, B.-B., & Qi, F. (2016) · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2015.11.067 · Cited by 123
Ge, D., Zhang, Y., Dai, Y., & Yang, S. (2018) · Journal of Separation Science · doi:10.1002/jssc.201701282 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
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“In addition to their large use in personal care products, these chemicals find also application in the UV-protection of numerous materials and products (Balmer et al., 2005; Fent et al., 2010).”
BackgroundUrban groundwater contamination by residues of UV filters.
Jurado, A., Gago-Ferrero, P., Vázquez-Suñé, E., Carrera, J., Pujades, E., Díaz-Cruz, M., & Barceló, D. (2014) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.01.036 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Occurrence of xenobiotics in gray water and removal in three biological treatment systems.
Leal, L. H., Vieno, N. M., Temmink, H., Zeeman, G., & Buisman, C. (2010) · Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1021/es101509e · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Non-porous membrane-assisted liquid-liquid extraction of UV filter compounds from water samples.
Rodil, R., Schrader, S., & Moeder, M. (2009) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2009.04.042 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Blüthgen, N., Meili, N., Chew, G., Odermatt, A., & Fent, K. (2014) · Science of the Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.015 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“UV-filters are mostly lipophilic, found in all aquatic compartments of fresh and sea water and in biota (Fent et al., 2010; Balmer et al., 2005) and are sometimes increased in summer months (Magi et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialGago-Ferrero, P., Badia-Fabregat, M., Olivares, A., Piña, B., Blánquez, P., Vicent, T., Caminal, G., Díaz-Cruz, M., & Barceló, D. (2012) · Science of the Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.089 · Cited by 118
Negreira, N., Rodríguez, I., Ramil, M., Rubí, E., & Cela, R. (2009) · Analytica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.02.015 · Cited by 118
- Authors
- Balmer, M. E., Buser, H.-R., Müller, M. D., & Poiger, T.
- Affiliations
- Agroscope (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Balmer, Marianne E.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2005-01-12
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 953-962
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2011754473
- Cited by
- 779
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 62 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 34
- FWCI
- 21.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Effects and risks of endocrine disrupting chemicals
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- organic UV filters, wastewater treatment plants, surface water contamination, fish contamination, benzophenone-3, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, octocrylene, sunscreen, seasonal variation, recreational activities, passive sampling, SPMD, methyl-triclosan, Swiss lakes, Lake Zurich
- MeSH terms
- Acrylates, Animals, Benzophenones, Camphor, Cinnamates, Environmental Monitoring, Fishes, Fresh Water, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Seasons, Sunscreening Agents, Swimming, Switzerland, Triclosan, Ultraviolet Rays, Waste Disposal, Fluid, Water Pollutants, Chemical
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