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Cited by 132Skin Protection and Agingmelanin and skin pigmentationPhotochromic and Fluorescence Chemistry

UV Filters: Challenges and Prospects

Open access
Jesus, Ana, Sousa, Emília, Cruz, Maria, Cidade, Honorina, Lobo, José, Almeida, Isabel·2022·Pharmaceuticals
DOI 10.3390/ph15030263PMC PMC8955451
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Abstract

The use of sunscreens is an established and recommended practice to protect skin from solar-induced damage. Around 30 UV filters can be used in sunscreen products in the European Union, which ought to follow the requirements of the regulation 1223/2009 to ensure their efficacy and safety for humans. Nevertheless, low photostability and putative toxicity for humans and environment have been reported for some UV filters. Particularly, the negative impact in marine organisms has recently raised concern on the scientific community. Therefore, it is important to develop new UV filters with improved safety profile and photostability. Over the last two decades, nearly 200 new compounds have revealed promising photoprotection properties. The explored compounds were obtained through different approaches, including exploration of natural sources, synthetic pathways, and nanotechnology. Almost 50 natural products and around 140 synthetic derivatives, such as benzimidazoles, benzotriazoles, hydroxycinnamic acids, xanthones, triazines, among others, have been studied aiming the discovery of novel, effective, and safer future photoprotective agents. Herein, we provide the reader with an overview about UV filters’ challenges and prospects, offering a forward-looking to the next-generation of UV filters.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review surveys challenges and prospects for UV filters, focusing on photostability, human and environmental toxicity, and the search for safer next-generation filters. It reports that nearly 200 new compounds have shown promising photoprotection over two decades, including almost 50 natural products and around 140 synthetic derivatives.

Key findings

  • Photostability is a major challenge: avobenzone (11) yielded around 10 photodegradation products after 8 h UV exposure at 260 or 320 nm, with product number varying by solvent, exposure time, and radiation dose; 4-MBC (7) undergoes E-Z photoisomerisation but is considered stable, EHMC (21) converts between E and Z isomers, and octocrylene (30) can convert into a benzophenone derivative via retro-aldol condensation.
  • UV filters have been detected in human biological samples and marine organisms: benzophenone-4 (BP-4) accumulated in placenta at 0.25–5.41 ng/g; octocrylene reached 782 ng/g in Franciscana dolphins; EHMC was found at 242 ng/g in freshwater fish; octocrylene reached 2–7112 ng/g in Portuguese marine mussels; BP-3 was found in coral tissues at 31.8 ± 8.6 ng/g.
  • Prospects include natural and synthetic candidates: botanical extracts and metabolites such as catechin (36), epicatechin (37), gyrophoric acid (39), and resveratrol (40) showed photoprotective/antioxidant potential; marine MAAs and scytonemin (44) absorb UV; synthetic series included benzimidazole 83 with 98.4% photostability versus PBSA (14) at 96.7%, xanthone-cinnamoyl 166 with SPF 19.69 and λc 381 nm, and PABA esters 71 and 72 with SPF 20.60 and 26.17.
  • Strategies to improve photostability include antioxidants, encapsulation, multiple UV-filter association, and quenchers; for example, vitamin C, vitamin E, and ubiquinone at 10, 2.5, and 2.5 µg/mL improved avobenzone stability, and alginate microencapsulation reduced EHMC photoisomerisation.

Methods

  • Narrative review; no systematic review protocol, search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, or meta-analysis is described.
  • Synthesizes literature on EU-approved UV filters, photodegradation, human and environmental toxicity, natural photoprotective products, and synthetic derivatives, with tables of photodegradation products and natural/synthetic compounds.
  • No primary experimental data are reported; all findings are drawn from cited studies.

Limitations

  • The paper does not state explicit limitations. Evident from the text: it is a narrative review without a described systematic search or quality appraisal, so conclusions depend on the selected cited studies.
  • Some Table 1 entries for photodegradation products are blank, and many toxicity studies use concentrations higher than environmental levels; the text notes environmental concentrations of some UV filters are around 500 times lower than those used in Artemia salina studies.
  • Human in vivo validation is still needed for fertility/endocrine effects, and coral toxicity results are described as highly variable and non-consistent, requiring more research.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/ph15030263

Cites

140 of 140 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

86 of 217 cited sources checked · 36 supported · 3 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Palythine (41) was found in an ethanolic extract of brown macroalgae Sargassum cristafolium.

    “These MAAs were also found in an ethanolic extract of brown macroalgae Sargassum cristafolium, namely, palythine (41) [120].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [120] Prasedya, E.S., Syafitri, S.M., Geraldine, B.A.F.D., Hamdin, C.D., Frediansyah, A., Miyake, M., Kobayashi, D., Hazama, A., and Sunarpi, H. (2019). UVA photoprotective activity of brown macroalgae Sargassum cristafolium. Biomedicines, 7. source

      Section 3.3 identifies the compound detected in the S. cristaefolium ethanol extract as palythene, not palythine. The Discussion likewise says the extract potentially contains palythene; it mentions palythine only as an MAA found in various seaweeds. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Compounds 180 and 183 possess photostability with LoA < avobenzone (11).

    “Moreover, p-hydroxycinnamic acid-based Meldrum’s derivatives (180 and 183) possess antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase properties, photoprotective characteristics, namely against UVA radiation and blue light, and photostability (with LoA < avobenzone (11)) [145] reinforcing their potential as multifunctional agents for cosmetic application [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] Peyrot, C., Mention, M.M., Brunissen, F., Balaguer, P., and Allais, F. (2020). Innovative bio-based organic UV-A and blue light filters from Meldrum’s acid. Molecules, 25. source

      In Results §2.2 (page not provided), the paper reports 3.5% loss of absorbance for its simplest coumaric derivative, versus 0.6% for avobenzone, and says the other phenolic derivatives have greater losses. Results §2.5 reports 6.4% for another phenolic derivative and says only a mixture—not the individual compounds—performed better than avobenzone. The paper uses different compound numbers, but its reported phenolic-series results run contrary to the claimed lower loss of absorbance. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Combining avobenzone with other UV filters such as 4-MBC or octocrylene, or with bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine, confers more stability to photounstable UV filters.

    “Moreover, the stabilisation of avobenzone (11) mediated by the combination with other UV filters, such methylbenzylidene camphor (7) or octocrylene (30) [48], or with bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine (27) [35], was proved as an advantageous option that confers more stability to the photounstable UV filters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [48] Gonzalez, H., Tarras-Wahlberg, N., Stromdahl, B., Juzeniene, A., Moan, J., Larko, O., Rosen, A., and Wennberg, A.M. (2007). Photostability of commercial sunscreens upon sun exposure and irradiation by ultraviolet lamps. BMC Dermatol., 7. source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) acknowledges a reported stabilizing effect of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor on avobenzone, but says that effect did not appear in the sunscreen tested. The passages found do not establish stabilization by octocrylene. The triazine combination has a separate citation in the citing sentence, so it is not assessed against this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [35] Chatelain, 2001, Photostabilization of butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (Avobenzone) and ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate by bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine (Tinosorb S), a new UV broadband filter, Photochem. Photobiol. source
  • Interpretationcitation

    UV filters can cause toxic effects.

    “In fact, many studies have confirmed the detection of UV filters in human biological samples [12,13] and in marine organisms [14,15,16,17], thus confirming the hypothesis of UV filter-derived toxic effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [12] 2016, Determination of parabens and benzophenone-type UV filters in human placenta: First description of the existence of benzyl paraben and benzophenone-4, Environ. Int. source
    • cites [13] Rehfeld, 2018, EDC IMPACT: Chemical UV filters can affect human sperm function in a progesterone-like manner, Endocr. Connect. source
    • cites [14] Bachelot, 2012, Organic UV filter concentrations in marine mussels from French coastal regions, Sci. Total Environ. source
    • cites [15] He, 2021, Natural components in sunscreens: Topical formulations with sun protection factor (SPF), Biomed. Pharmacother. source
    • cites [16] Giraldo, 2017, Ecotoxicological Evaluation of the UV Filters Ethylhexyl Dimethyl p-Aminobenzoic Acid and Octocrylene Using Marine Organisms Isochrysis galbana, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. source
    • cites [17] Lozano, 2020, Bioaccumulation and toxicological effects of uv-filters on marine species, Handbook of Environmental Chemistry source
  • Premisecitation

    UV filters have been detected in human biological samples.

    “In fact, many studies have confirmed the detection of UV filters in human biological samples [12,13] and in marine organisms [14,15,16,17], thus confirming the hypothesis of UV filter-derived toxic effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] 2016, Determination of parabens and benzophenone-type UV filters in human placenta: First description of the existence of benzyl paraben and benzophenone-4, Environ. Int. source
    • cites [13] Rehfeld, 2018, EDC IMPACT: Chemical UV filters can affect human sperm function in a progesterone-like manner, Endocr. Connect. source

      The Materials and methods section describes adding UV filters to donated human semen samples, and the Discussion reports their effects on sperm function; neither reports detecting UV filters in human biological samples before laboratory treatment. Searches for detection in human urine, blood, and other biological samples found no supporting passage in our copy. Page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims. 82
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cerium phosphate (CePO4) has high photocatalytic activity, low amount of white residue when applied on the skin, and increased stability.

    “Similarly to CeO2, CePO4 was described for possessing high photocatalytic activity, low amount of white residue when applied on the skin, and increased stability [129].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [129] Seixas, 2014, Stability of sunscreens containing CePO4: Proposal for a new inorganic UV filter, Molecules source

      The Introduction says CePO4 has reduced catalytic and photocatalytic activities, contrary to the claim that its photocatalytic activity is high. The Abstract and Conclusions support the other two properties: low white residue on skin and high stability. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    4-MBC undergoes E-Z photoisomerisation but is considered stable due to similar UV spectra before and after irradiation and minimal change in photoprotective action.

    “The UV filter 3-(4-methylbenzylidene) camphor (4-MBC) (7) (Figure 1) suffers E-Z photoisomerisation. Nevertheless, 4-MBC (7) is considered stable due to the similarity of the UV spectra before and after irradiation, as well as the minimum change of the photoprotective action, before and after the irradiation [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Stenhagen, 1999, Changes in ultraviolet absorption of sunscreens after ultraviolet irradiation, J. Investig. Dermatol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Padimate O decomposes after irradiation forming two photoproducts, one from loss of a methyl group and another from oxidation of the amine group.

    “This compound tends to promptly decompose after irradiation, forming two photoproducts, one as a result of the loss of methyl group from the initial molecule, and the other product with an extra value of atomic number, probably associated with the oxidation of the amine group, directly linked to the aromatic ring (Table 1, 2nd entry) [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Stenhagen, 1999, Changes in ultraviolet absorption of sunscreens after ultraviolet irradiation, J. Investig. Dermatol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nanoparticles remain in the stratum corneum and do not penetrate into the skin.

    “Recently, it was reported that nanoparticles remain in the stratum corneum and do not penetrate into the skin [65].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] Wang, 2010, Photoprotection: A Review of the Current and Future Technologies, Dermatol. Ther. source

      The Inorganic sunscreens section reports that nano-sized TiO2 and ZnO in sunscreens generally remain at the stratum corneum level. The claim is broader and more absolute than the source: it refers to nanoparticles generally and says they do not penetrate into the skin, while the source notes findings in follicular openings and superficial follicles. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    UV irradiation can promote keto-enol isomerisation of avobenzone and fragmentation into radicals that can form reactive by-products.

    “It was verified that UV irradiation can promote the keto-enol isomerisation of 11 (Figure 2 (1)), and the fragmentation into two radicals (Figure 2 (2)), which after could form a phenacyl and benzoyl radicals that could generate reactive by-products, through reaction with others UV filters or fragments [28,30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] Bonda, C.A., and Lott, D. (2016). Sunscreen photostability. Principles and Practice of Photoprotection, Springer International Publishing. source
    • cites [30] Stenhagen, 1999, Changes in ultraviolet absorption of sunscreens after ultraviolet irradiation, J. Investig. Dermatol. source

      The “UVB sunscreen compounds” section (page not specified in our copy) says that the dibenzoylmethane derivative requires keto-enol isomerization before photoreaction and decomposes under UV irradiation. The Discussion describes possible secondary reactions in sunscreen mixtures, but the cited passages do not establish fragmentation into phenacyl and benzoyl radicals or their reactions with other UV filters. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gelatine micro- and nano-spheres improve skin compatibility, safety, and efficacy.

    “Additionally, gelatine micro- and nano-spheres improved skin compatibility, safety, and efficacy [41,42,43] and alginate microparticles influenced photostability, through the reduction of the EHMC’s (21) photoisomerisation [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [41] Dario, 2016, Safety and efficacy evaluation of gelatin-based nanoparticles associated with UV filters, Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces source
    • cites [42] Graziola, 2016, Gelatin-based microspheres crosslinked with glutaraldehyde and rutin oriented to cosmetics, Bras. J. Pharm. Sci. source

      The Conclusion (page not provided) reports very good skin compatibility for the gelatin microspheres. It also says they did not improve estimated efficacy when combined with UV filters. This paper studied microspheres, not nanospheres, and its compatibility tests do not establish a broader improvement in safety. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [43] Oliveira, 2016, Cutaneous biocompatible rutin-loaded gelatin-based nanoparticles increase the SPF of the association of UVA and UVB filters, Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Padimate O is photoinstable for UVA and photostable for UVB radiation.

    “The photodegradation of 2-ethylhexyl-4-dimethylaminobenzoate (Padimate O) (24) was also evaluated confirming its photoinstability for UVA and photostability for UVB radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Stenhagen, 1999, Changes in ultraviolet absorption of sunscreens after ultraviolet irradiation, J. Investig. Dermatol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    V. vinifera grape extracts have higher radical scavenging capacity than commercial olive leaf extract, probably due to higher phenolic content.

    “It is noteworthy to mention that V. vinifera grape extracts [100] revealed a higher radical scavenging capacity than the commercial extract of olive leaves [101], probably due to the highest content in phenolic compounds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [100] Hubner, A., Sobreira, F., Neto, A.V., de Oliveira Pinto, C.A.S., Dario, M.F., Díaz, I.E.C., Lourenço, F.R., Rosado, C., Baby, A.R., and Bacchi, E.M. (2019). The synergistic behavior of antioxidant phenolic compounds obtained fromwinemaking waste’s valorization, increased the efficacy of a sunscreen system. Antioxidants, 8. source

      Section 3.1 reports radical-scavenging activity for V. vinifera grape-pomace extract and associates grape antioxidant activity with polyphenols. This paper does not compare the extract with commercial olive-leaf extract or establish that a higher phenolic content explains the claimed difference; the olive-leaf extract has a separate citation in the citing sentence. No page number was provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [101] Paiva, 2019, Photoprotection assessment of olive (Olea europaea L.) leaves extract standardized to oleuropein: In vitro and in silico approach for improved sunscreens, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extracts of Lippia sericea, Cecropia obtusa, Acacia catechu heartwood, Brazilian bamboo species, and Lasallia pustulata have antioxidant and photoprotective activities.

    “Extracts of Brazilian Lippia sericea [102], Amazonian Cecropia obtusa [103], Acacia catechu heartwood [104], Brazilian bamboo species [105], and Lasallia pustulata [106] were also reported for their antioxidant and photoprotective activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [102] Polonini, 2014, A natural broad-spectrum sunscreen formulated from the dried extract of Brazilian Lippia sericea as a single UV filter, RSC Adv. source
    • cites [103] Alves, 2016, Cecropia obtusa, an Amazonian ethanolic extract, exhibits photochemoprotective effect in vitro and balances the redox cellular state in response to UV radiation, Ind. Crops Prod. source
    • cites [104] Anurukvorakun, 2019, Formulation strategy, stability issues, safety and efficacy evaluations of Acacia catechu whitening cream, Int. J. Appl. Pharm. source

      For the Acacia catechu heartwood citation [104], the Introduction (page not available) describes heartwood catechins as natural UV filters, and the paper reports sun protection for a cream containing heartwood extract. Its antioxidant statement concerns a leaf methanol extract, not heartwood extract; the claimed antioxidant activity of heartwood extract is therefore unsupported by this source. The other plants have separate citations and are not assessed here. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The sulfonate group can act as a DNA alkylating agent and genotoxic agent in bacterial and mammalian cells.

    “In addition to environmental toxicity, the sulfonate group’s ability to act as DNA alkylating agents, and as a genotoxic agent in bacterial and mammalian cells was already reported [82].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [82] Elder, 2009, Drug substances presented as sulfonic acid salts: Overview of utility, safety and regulation, J. Pharm. Pharmacol. source

      The Introduction states that alkyl esters of sulfonic acids can alkylate DNA and have shown genotoxic effects in bacterial and mammalian cells. It attributes those effects to the esters, not to the sulfonate group on its own. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A 2018 study concluded that exposure to UV filters may decrease men's fertility, though more research is required to confirm in vivo results.

    “Indeed, in 2018, a study addressed the clinical impact of 29 UV filters on the progesterone present in human sperm, concluding that the exposure to these compounds may decrease the men’s fertility, although more research studies are required to confirm these in vivo results [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Rehfeld, 2018, EDC IMPACT: Chemical UV filters can affect human sperm function in a progesterone-like manner, Endocr. Connect. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Phenolic compounds from Vitis vinifera grape extract have synergistic antioxidant and photoprotection activities and improve SPF by 81%.

    “After biological tests, it was shown that the grape extracts restored the morphological characteristics of photo-damaged fibroblasts [99], and it was proven the synergistic antioxidant and photoprotection activities of phenolic compounds obtained from the extract of Vitis vinifera L. grapes [100], which demonstrated an amelioration in the solar protection factor (SPF) value of 81%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [100] Hubner, A., Sobreira, F., Neto, A.V., de Oliveira Pinto, C.A.S., Dario, M.F., Díaz, I.E.C., Lourenço, F.R., Rosado, C., Baby, A.R., and Bacchi, E.M. (2019). The synergistic behavior of antioxidant phenolic compounds obtained fromwinemaking waste’s valorization, increased the efficacy of a sunscreen system. Antioxidants, 8. source

      The Abstract (page not specified) reports an 81% SPF increase for a pH 5 formulation combining Vitis vinifera grape-pomace extract with UV filters, but describes photoprotective synergism as suggested rather than proven. Section 3.2.1 (page not specified) finds antioxidant activity from the extract but no added antioxidant effect from combining it with UV filters; it therefore does not establish synergistic antioxidant activity. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    After 48 h exposure at 2 mg/L, homosalate, avobenzone, and octocrylene induced mortality in Artemia salina of 54%, 64%, and 88%, respectively, with octocrylene most toxic.

    “The results were determined after 48 h of exposure and revealed that homosalate (8), avobenzone (11), and octocrylene (30) induced mortality in 54%, 64%, and 88%, respectively, at concentrations of 2 mg/L, being octocrylene (30) considered the most toxic UV filter for this organism [93].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [93] Thorel, E., Clergeaud, F., Jaugeon, L., Rodrigues, A.M.S., Lucas, J., Stien, D., and Lebaron, P. (2020). Effect of 10 UV filters on the brine shrimp Artemia salina and themarinemicroalga Tetraselmis sp.. Toxics, 8. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    ZnO causes bleaching in Acropora spp., while modified ZnO particles (Eusolex® T2000 and OptisolTM) considerably diminish bleaching.

    “An example was the test performed with the coral species Acropora spp. exposed to ZnO (35) and modified particles of ZnO (35), which confirmed the bleaching caused by this specific UV filter. The modified particles (Eusolex® T2000 and Optisol™) considerably diminished the bleaching of the coral, which proved the damaging effect caused by the non-modified ZnO (35) [59].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Corinaldesi, 2018, Impact of inorganic UV filters contained in sunscreen products on tropical stony corals (Acropora spp.), Sci. Total Environ. source

      The Results and discussion section reports that ZnO caused rapid bleaching in Acropora spp., while Eusolex T2000 and Optisol caused no visible bleaching. However, it identifies Eusolex T2000 and Optisol as forms of TiO2, not modified ZnO particles. (LLM, conf=0.92)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Homosalate at 1 mg/L inhibits growth of Tetraselmis sp., and benzophenone-1 and benzophenone-3 at 5 mg/L inhibit growth of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

    “Growth inhibition was one of the negative effects that affects algae organisms, namely Tetraselmis sp. at concentrations of 1 mg/L for homosalate (8) [93] and green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii at 5 mg/L for benzophenone-1 and benzophenone-3 (10) [94].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [93] Thorel, E., Clergeaud, F., Jaugeon, L., Rodrigues, A.M.S., Lucas, J., Stien, D., and Lebaron, P. (2020). Effect of 10 UV filters on the brine shrimp Artemia salina and themarinemicroalga Tetraselmis sp.. Toxics, 8. source

      The Conclusion reports that homosalate was the most toxic filter for Tetraselmis sp., with an EC50 of 74 µg/L, and Methods §2.1 says the alga was tested at concentrations up to 1 mg/L. The passages establish toxicity but do not explicitly identify growth inhibition at 1 mg/L as the measured effect. The Chlamydomonas claim is attached to a different citation, [94], and is not attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [94] Mao, F., He, Y., and Gin, K.H. (2018). Evaluating the joint toxicity of two benzophenone-type UV filters on the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with response surface methodology. Toxics, 6. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    UV filters in marine waters deposit in sediments and contribute to bioaccumulation in marine and terrestrial organisms through absorption, abiotic and biotic degradation, hydrolysis, and photolysis.

    “It is noteworthy mentioning that the presence of these compounds in marine waters, will after some time deposit in sediments, contributing for the bioaccumulation in both marine and terrestrial organisms, through absorption, abiotic and biotic degradation, hydrolysis, and photolysis [84,86,87].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [84] Huang, 2021, Risks of organic UV filters: A review of environmental and human health concern studies, Sci. Total Environ. source
    • cites [86] Duis, 2022, Review of the environmental fate and effects of two UV filter substances used in cosmetic products, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Sections 3.3 and 4 describe partitioning of the two UV filters from water into sediment, and section 3.4.2 reports accumulation measurements in aquatic organisms. The paper does not establish bioaccumulation in terrestrial organisms or describe hydrolysis, photolysis, and degradation as routes by which sediment deposition causes bioaccumulation. Section 3.4.1 also concludes that OCR is not bioaccumulative under the EU REACH criterion. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [87] Mitchelmore, C.L., Burns, E.E., Conway, A., Heyes, A., and Davies, I.A. (2021). A Critical Review of Organic Ultraviolet Filter Exposure, Hazard, and Risk to Corals. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. source

      The ‘UV filter environmental occurrence near coral reefs’ section reports UV filters in marine sediments and says sediment could be a pathway for coral exposure. The Conclusion and Recommendations says some UV filters have been shown to bioaccumulate in corals, but the paper does not establish bioaccumulation in terrestrial organisms or the claimed sequence of deposition and processes leading to bioaccumulation. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sulphonated compounds accumulate and generate toxicity in marine/aquatic systems and organisms.

    “Sulphonated compounds have been reported for accumulate and generate toxicity in marine/aquatic systems and organisms [81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Pablos, 2015, Acute and chronic toxicity of emerging contaminants, alone or in combination, in Chlorella vulgaris and Daphnia magna, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. source

      The indexed abstract (page unavailable) studies toxicity in aquatic algae and Daphnia, including responses to mixtures containing perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). It does not report that sulphonated compounds generally accumulate in aquatic systems or organisms, and its findings about PFOS do not establish toxicity for that broader class. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extracts of Lippia sericea, Cecropia obtusa, Acacia catechu, Brazilian bamboo, and Lasallia pustulata have high SPF values in formulations (SPF = 7-86), with Brazilian bamboo most promising at SPF 44 after irradiation.

    “The other extracts revealed to possess a complex mixture of compounds, namely a high content of phenols [102,105] and polyphenols [103] and high SPF values in formulations (SPF = 7–86) [102,103,104,105,106], being the extract of Brazilian bamboo species the most promising with a SPF value of 44, after irradiation [105].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [102] Polonini, 2014, A natural broad-spectrum sunscreen formulated from the dried extract of Brazilian Lippia sericea as a single UV filter, RSC Adv. source
    • cites [103] Alves, 2016, Cecropia obtusa, an Amazonian ethanolic extract, exhibits photochemoprotective effect in vitro and balances the redox cellular state in response to UV radiation, Ind. Crops Prod. source
    • cites [104] Anurukvorakun, 2019, Formulation strategy, stability issues, safety and efficacy evaluations of Acacia catechu whitening cream, Int. J. Appl. Pharm. source
    • cites [105] Baby, 2019, In vitro antioxidant and photoprotective activity of five native Brazilian bamboo species, Ind. Crops Prod. source
    • cites [106] Legouin, 2013, Lichenic extracts and metabolites as UV filters, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compounds 104 and 109 were the least toxic against HaCaT keratinocytes and human fibroblasts cell lines, and compound 99 revealed the best UVB photoprotective properties within the tested series, with SPF = 4.7.

    “Compounds 104 and 109 were considered the less toxic against HaCaT keratinocytes and human fibroblasts cell lines, and compound 99 revealed the best UVB photoprotective properties within the tested series, with a SPF = 4.7.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Popiół, J., Gunia-Krzyzak, A., Piska, K., Zelaszczyk, D., Koczurkiewicz, P., Słoczynska, K., Wójcik-Pszczoła, K., Krupa, A., Kryczyk-Poprawa, A., and Zesławska, E. (2019). Discovery of novel UV-filters with favorable safety profiles in the 5-arylideneimidazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives group. Molecules, 24. source

      The Conclusions (p. unavailable) identify compound 2a as having the best UVB photoprotection in the tested series, with an in vitro SPF of 4.79 ± 0.02—close to, but not exactly, 4.7. Section 2.6.1 (p. unavailable) reports no cytotoxicity in HaCaT keratinocytes or BJ fibroblasts for the tested derivatives, but does not identify compounds 104 and 109 as the least toxic. The source uses labels such as 2a rather than 99, so the numbered compounds cannot be matched from these passages. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The synthesised hydantoin derivatives (98-110) revealed moderate SPF values but demonstrated the ability to absorb both UVA and UVB radiation (λc between 339 and 391 nm).

    “Although the synthesised compounds revealed moderate SPF values, they demonstrated the ability to absorb both UVA and UVB radiation (λc between 339 and 391 nm) [136].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Popiół, J., Gunia-Krzyzak, A., Piska, K., Zelaszczyk, D., Koczurkiewicz, P., Słoczynska, K., Wójcik-Pszczoła, K., Krupa, A., Kryczyk-Poprawa, A., and Zesławska, E. (2019). Discovery of novel UV-filters with favorable safety profiles in the 5-arylideneimidazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives group. Molecules, 24. source

      Section 2.4 (page unavailable) reports modest in vitro SPF values for some derivatives and UVA absorption alongside UVB-related SPF; Section 2.3 describes the tested series as containing both UVA and UVB absorbers. The available text does not give the claimed critical-wavelength range of 339–391 nm, and it distinguishes UVA from UVB filters rather than establishing that every compound absorbs both. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For hydantoin derivatives, methoxy substituents at the aromatic ring are associated with photoprotection against UVA radiation, while absence of methoxy groups is associated with UVB filter properties.

    “For instance, methoxy substituents at the aromatic ring are associated with photoprotection against UVA radiation; in contrast, the absence of methoxy groups in the aromatic ring is associated with interesting UVB filter properties [136].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Popiół, J., Gunia-Krzyzak, A., Piska, K., Zelaszczyk, D., Koczurkiewicz, P., Słoczynska, K., Wójcik-Pszczoła, K., Krupa, A., Kryczyk-Poprawa, A., and Zesławska, E. (2019). Discovery of novel UV-filters with favorable safety profiles in the 5-arylideneimidazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives group. Molecules, 24. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Scytonemin (44) has anti-photoaging and anti-inflammatory activities.

    “Recently, the promising anti-photoaging and anti-inflammatory activities of scytonemin (44) were described [122].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122] Kang, M.R., Jo, S.A., Lee, H., Yoon, Y.D., Kwon, J.H., Yang, J.W., Choi, B.J., Park, K.H., Lee, M.Y., and Lee, C.W. (2020). Inhibition of Skin Inflammation by Scytonemin, an Ultraviolet Sunscreen Pigment. Mar. Drugs, 18. source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) says the study demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and in vivo and describes scytonemin as a UV sunscreen agent. It does not report an anti-photoaging effect; UV protection and a general mention of anti-wrinkle properties do not establish that part of the claim. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ethanolic extract of brown macroalgae Sargassum cristafolium contains palythine (41) and has photoprotective activity with λc = 370 nm.

    “| Ethanolic extract of brown macroalgae Sargassum cristafolium | Palythine (41) | Photoprotective | λc = 370 nm | [120] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [120] Prasedya, E.S., Syafitri, S.M., Geraldine, B.A.F.D., Hamdin, C.D., Frediansyah, A., Miyake, M., Kobayashi, D., Hazama, A., and Sunarpi, H. (2019). UVA photoprotective activity of brown macroalgae Sargassum cristafolium. Biomedicines, 7. source

      The Results (§3.2) report UVA absorption by the Sargassum cristaefolium ethanol extract, supporting its photoprotective activity. But the LC-MS result (§3.3) identifies palythene, not palythine, and the copy does not report a critical wavelength (λc) of 370 nm. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vegetable oils, guava-fruit extract, rice bran and raspberry seeds, and red propolis extracts can increase the SPF of sunscreens.

    “It was also possible to enhance the efficiency of UV filters by increasing the SPF of the sunscreens, using vegetable oils [111,112], guava-fruit extract [113,114], rice bran and raspberry seeds [115], and red propolis extracts [116].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [111] Candau, 2012, New combination of ultraviolet absorbers in an oily emollient increases sunscreen efficacy and photostability, Dermatol. Ther. source

      The Results section ('SPF and UPA-PF of Sunscreens I and J'; page not provided) reports increased SPF in a formulation containing an oily vehicle. But the paper identifies that vehicle as isopropyl lauroyl sarcosinate, a derivative of an amino acid, not a vegetable oil. It therefore supports SPF enhancement, but not the vegetable-oil example attributed to it. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [112] Montenegro, L., and Santagati, L.M. (2019). Use of vegetable oils to improve the sun protection factor of sunscreen formulations. Cosmetics, 6. source
    • cites [113] Mota, 2019, Guava-fruit extract can improve the UV-protection efficiency of synthetic filters in sun cream formulations, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source
    • cites [114] Milani, 2018, Extract from byproduct Psidium guajava standardized in ellagic acid: Additivation of the in vitro photoprotective efficacy of a cosmetic formulation, Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. source
    • cites [115] Niculae, 2014, Rice bran and raspberry seed oil-based nanocarriers with self-antioxidative properties as safe photoprotective formulations, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Benzimidazole derivatives 73-86 have photoprotective activity, and compound 83 also demonstrated antioxidant activity and higher photostability (98.4%) compared with control PBSA (14) (96.7%).

    “Benzimidazole derivatives 73–86 were reported for their photoprotective activity, and compound 83 also demonstrated antioxidant activity and higher photostability (98.4%) when compared with the control phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic acid (PBSA) (14) (96.7%) [134].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134] Bino, 2017, Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel hydroxy-phenyl-1H-benzimidazoles as radical scavengers and UV-protective agents, J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. source

      The Photostability and stability studies section reports 98.4% residual product for compound 12 versus 96.7% for PBSA; the Conclusions also identify compound 12 as antioxidant and photoprotective. The source uses compound numbers 2–15 rather than 73–86, so the identification of 83 as compound 12 is inferred from the numbering. More importantly, the Cytotoxicity and phototoxicity tests section says five compounds were unsuitable for further development as photoprotective agents, so the claim overstates the activity of the whole series. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    More than 30 MAAs are produced by algae and cyanobacteria.

    “There are more than 30 MAAs produced by algae [117] and cyanobacteria [118]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [117] Llewellyn, 2010, Distribution and abundance of MAAs in 33 species of microalgae across 13 classes, Mar. Drugs source

      The Introduction says MAAs occur in algae, but it does not establish that algae produce more than 30 distinct MAAs: it describes a group of over 20 compounds and says at least 19 structurally distinct MAAs had been recognized. Results and Discussion §2.1 reports 25 MAA or MAA-like compounds across 33 algal species; the 33 counts species, not compounds. The separate citation for cyanobacteria is not judged here. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [118] Liu, 2004, Occurrence of mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) in the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa, J. Plankton Res. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among 5-membered ring-benzimidazole derivatives, the thiophene derivative 89 was the most photostable, followed by pyrrole derivative 87 and furan derivative 88.

    “Among these, the most photostable was the thiophene derivative 89, followed by pyrrole derivative 87, and the furan derivative 88 [135].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [135] Djuidje, E.N., Durini, E., Sciabica, S., Serra, E., Balzarini, J., Liekens, S., Manfredini, S., Vertuani, S., and Baldisserotto, A. (2020). Skin damages—Structure activity relationship of benzimidazole derivatives bearing a 5-membered ring system. Molecules, 25. source

      Section 2.2.3 states the photostability order as thiophene > pyrrole > furan, supporting the ranking. The source identifies the tested compounds as 12, 10, and 11, respectively; our copy does not establish whether these correspond to derivatives 89, 87, and 88 in the citing document. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Benzophenone 69 and lactone 70 displayed UV filter properties; lactone 70 had a more potent photoprotective effect (SPF = 16) but only absorbed UVB radiation, whereas benzophenone 69 absorbed UVA radiation.

    “In addition to these benzophenones, the structure-related benzophenone 69 and lactone 70 displayed UV filter properties, having lactone 70, a more potent photoprotective effect (SPF = 16), but only ability to absorb UVB radiation, contrarily to benzophenone 69, which demonstrated the ability to absorb UVA radiation [132].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132] Rossoni, 2018, Preliminary studies of the cytotoxicity and photoprotective properties of benzophenone and lactone derivatives, Rev. Virtual Quim. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sinapoyl-L-malate (142) is a sinapoyl ester widely described for its UV protection in plants.

    “Sinapoyl-L-malate (142) is a sinapoyl ester widely described for its UV protection in plants [140].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140] Horbury, 2019, Towards symmetry driven and nature inspired UV filter design, Nat. Commun. source

      The Introduction says naturally occurring sinapate esters provide UV photoprotection, supporting the claim at the class level. Our copy does not identify sinapoyl-L-malate specifically or establish that its protective role is widely described; the paper focuses on diethyl sinapate. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compounds 182, 184, 187, and 191 do not interact with receptors, showing absence of agonistic (% receptor activity < 30%) and antagonistic (% receptor activity > 70%) effects.

    “Interestingly, endocrine disruption assays were performed for compounds 182, 184, 187, and 191, that revealed non-interaction with receptors, showing the absence of agonistic (% receptor activity < 30%) and antagonistic (% receptor activity > 70%) effects [145].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] Peyrot, C., Mention, M.M., Brunissen, F., Balaguer, P., and Allais, F. (2020). Innovative bio-based organic UV-A and blue light filters from Meldrum’s acid. Molecules, 25. source

      Section 2.6, Endocrine Disruption Assays (page unavailable), reports that four tested molecules barely interacted with the receptors and showed no agonist or antagonist activity. It identifies them as compounds 3, 5, 8, and 12, not 182, 184, 187, and 191; the cited text also does not establish the claimed <30% and >70% activity thresholds. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Xanthone 162 protects the skin against UV damage through DPPH scavenging action and UV-filter capacity, without phototoxicity in the HaCaT keratinocyte cell line.

    “Additionally, xanthone 162 showed a dual ability to protect the skin against UV damage, through DPPH scavenging action and UV-filter capacity, without phototoxicity in the HaCaT keratinocyte cell line [142].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [142] Resende, D.I.S.P., Almeida, M.C., Maciel, B., Carmo, H., Lobo, J.S., Pozzo, C.D., Cravo, S.M., Rosa, G.P., Kane-Pagès, A., and Do Carmo Barreto, M. (2020). Efficacy, stability, and safety evaluation of new polyphenolic xanthones towards identification of bioactive compounds to fight skin photoaging. Molecules, 25. source

      The Conclusions (section 4; page unavailable) describe 1,2-dihydroxyxanthone (compound 1) as having antioxidant activity and UV-filter capacity, while section 2.2.1 reports its DPPH radical-scavenging activity. Section 2.5 finds it nonphototoxic in HaCaT cells up to 200 µM. The copy does not identify this compound as “xanthone 162,” and the claim omits the tested-concentration limit. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Compounds reported by Popiół et al. possess action against UVA and UVB radiation, in contrast to compounds with a simple xanthone scaffold reported by Resende et al.

    “Comparing these two groups of xanthones, the combination of the cinnamoyl and xanthonic moieties allows the correct electronic delocalisation, which improves the UV absorber properties and, because of that, compounds reported by Popiół et al. [26] possess action against UVA and UVB radiation, in contrast to compounds with a simple xanthone scaffold reported by Resende et al. [142].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] Popiół, J., Gunia-Krzyżak, A., Słoczyńska, K., Koczurkiewicz-Adamczyk, P., Piska, K., Wójcik-Pszczoła, K., Żelaszczyk, D., Krupa, A., Żmudzki, P., and Marona, H. (2021). The involvement of xanthone and (E)-cinnamoyl chromophores for the design and synthesis of novel sunscreening agents. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22. source

      Section 2.3 (page unavailable) reports that compounds 9 and 10 absorb in both the UVB and UVA II regions, supporting the claim for some of Popiół et al.’s compounds. It also describes compound 16 as a UVB absorber, so the source does not support the implication that all its reported compounds act against both UVA and UVB. The comparison with Resende et al. is attached to a separate citation and is not assessed here. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [142] Resende, D.I.S.P., Almeida, M.C., Maciel, B., Carmo, H., Lobo, J.S., Pozzo, C.D., Cravo, S.M., Rosa, G.P., Kane-Pagès, A., and Do Carmo Barreto, M. (2020). Efficacy, stability, and safety evaluation of new polyphenolic xanthones towards identification of bioactive compounds to fight skin photoaging. Molecules, 25. source

      In Results and Discussion §2.2 (page not provided), Resende et al. report that their xanthones have high absorbance in the UVB range. The passage does not establish that they lack UVA absorption or action, so it supports the UVB side of the contrast but not the implied absence of UVA action. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among compounds 142-157, compounds 142, 144, 147, and 150-157 showed promising photoprotective activity with LoA < avobenzone (11), and antioxidant activity, with 151 and 155-157 being the most promising.

    “Among all the compounds, 142–157, 142, 144, 147, and 150–157 showed promising photoprotective activity with LoA < avobenzone (11), and antioxidant activity, being 151 and 155–157 the most promising.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Peyrot, 2020, Expeditious and sustainable two-step synthesis of sinapoyl-l-malate and analogues: Towards non-endocrine disruptive bio-based and water-soluble bioactive compounds, Green Chem. source

      The paper text available in our copy reports that the synthesized compounds showed promise as photostable UV filters and antioxidants. It does not identify compounds 142, 144, 147, or 150–157, compare their LoA with avobenzone, or single out 151 and 155–157 as most promising. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Almost 50 natural products and around 140 synthetic derivatives have been studied for novel photoprotective agents.

    “Almost 50 natural products and around 140 synthetic derivatives, such as benzimidazoles, benzotriazoles, hydroxycinnamic acids, xanthones, triazines, among others, have been studied aiming the discovery of novel, effective, and safer future photoprotective agents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Over the last two decades, nearly 200 new compounds have shown promising photoprotection properties.

    “Over the last two decades, nearly 200 new compounds have revealed promising photoprotection properties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The main challenges associated with UV filters in sunscreens are photoinstability, environmental impact, and human toxicity.

    “The main challenges associated with the UV filters present in sunscreens are their photoinstability, environmental impact, and human toxicity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Witorsch et al. (2010) reported negative impact of some classes of compounds, including UV filters that crossed skin layers.

    “Witorsch et al. (2010) referred the negative impact of some classes of compounds, including UV filters that crossed the skin layers; nevertheless, this study highlighted that serum and reproductive hormones levels were not affected by this exposure [70].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Witorsch, 2010, Personal care products and endocrine disruption: A critical review of the literature, Crit. Rev. Toxicol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    UV filters that photoisomerise or photodegrade are photoinstable and can generate toxic photodegradation products and lose photoprotective action.

    “Photoinstability occurs for UV filters that photoisomerise or photodegrade, and consequently can generate toxic photodegradation products and loss of photoprotective action [20].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Kockler, 2012, Photostability of sunscreens, J. Photochem. Photobiol. C Photochem. Rev. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Octocrylene converts into a benzophenone derivative through retro-aldol condensation, increasing its phototoxic potential.

    “It is noteworthy to mention that, recently, it was reported the conversion of octocrylene (30) into a benzophenone derivative through a retro-aldol condensation reaction, which increases the phototoxic potential of this UV filter [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Downs, 2021, Benzophenone Accumulates over Time from the Degradation of Octocrylene in Commercial Sunscreen Products, Chem. Res. Toxicol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Antioxidants vitamin C, vitamin E, and ubiquinone used concomitantly improve the photostability of avobenzone, and ubiquinone improves the SPF value of the formulation.

    “Afonso et al. (2014) reported the stabilising effect of antioxidants, namely vitamin C, vitamin E, and ubiquinone, when used concomitantly in the formulation, which improved the photostability of avobenzone (11) with antioxidant concentrations of 10 µg/mL, 2.5 µg/mL, and 2.5 µg/mL, respectively, as well as the improvement of the SPF value of the formulation with ubiquinone [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Afonso, 2014, Photodegradation of avobenzone: Stabilization effect of antioxidants, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    UV filters can penetrate the skin and reach the blood circulation.

    “Some studies reported the ability of UV filters to penetrate the skin and reach the blood circulation, triggering concerns about the possible negative impact of UV filters in human body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    UV filters have endocrine disrupting effects including estrogenic, androgenic, and thyroid activities, as well as cytotoxicity, behavioural changes, and neurotoxicity.

    “Estrogenic, androgenic, and thyroid activities are included in the endocrine disrupting effects of UV filters [77], but other inherent effects have been reported, namely cytotoxicity [78], behavioural changes [79], and neurotoxicity [80].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [77] Lorigo, 2018, Photoprotection of ultraviolet-B filters: Updated review of endocrine disrupting properties, Steroids source
    • cites [78] Krifaton, 2016, Hormonal activity, cytotoxicity and developmental toxicity of UV filters, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. source
    • cites [79] Chen, 2018, Effect of the UV-filter benzophenone-3 on intra-colonial social behaviors of the false clown anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris), Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    4-MBC at 0.19-0.77 mg/L causes neurotoxicity, malformations, decreased heart rate and gene expression, and altered sexual differentiation in zebrafish embryos.

    “Neurotoxicity and malformations, decrease in heart rate and gene expression, as well as alteration in sexual differentiation were some of the consequences seen in zebrafish embryos Danio renio regarding to 3-(4-methylbenzylidene) camphor (7) at concentrations between 0.19 and 0.77 mg/L [96].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [96] Quintaneiro, 2019, Toxicity effects of the organic UV-filter 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor in zebrafish embryos, Chemosphere source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bioaccumulation and toxicological effects are the main issues associated with marine contamination by UV filters and can induce persistence through the food chain.

    “Bioaccumulation and toxicological effects are the main issues associated with marine contamination by UV filters that could induce the persistence of these emergent contaminants through the food chain [84].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [84] Huang, 2021, Risks of organic UV filters: A review of environmental and human health concern studies, Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gyrophoric acid is the major component of L. pustulata extract and is proposed as main responsible for its antioxidant and photoprotective activities.

    “Considering L. pustulata extract, it was verified that gyrophoric acid (39) was the major component detected by HPLC, being proposed that this secondary metabolite should be the main responsible for the antioxidant and photoprotective activities [106].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [106] Legouin, 2013, Lichenic extracts and metabolites as UV filters, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cinnamates, octocrylene, and camphor derivatives share an α,β-unsaturated double bond susceptible to Michael addition with skin proteins, forming protein adducts that can lead to skin sensitisation and allergic contact dermatitis.

    “Interestingly, through the analysis of the UV filters’ chemical structure it is possible to detect the presence of some similar points in chemical structure of others UV filters already reported by their toxic effects, namely cinnamates, octocrylene (30), and camphor derivatives; for instance, the double bond of the α,β-unsaturated system presents in both UV filters is known for their suscept”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Stiefel, 2013, Reactions of cosmetic UV filters with skin proteins: Model studies of esters with primary amines, Trends Photochem. Photobiol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Benzylidene camphor sulfonic acid (5) and 3-benzylidene camphor (7) inhibited progesterone and induced the Ca2+ channel pathway, which leads to men's infertility.

    “In addition, benzylidene camphor sulfonic acid (5) and 3-benzylidene camphor (7) inhibited progesterone, and consequently induced the Ca2+ channel pathway, which leads to men’s infertility [71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Rehfeld, 2016, Chemical UV filters mimic the effect of progesterone on Ca2+ signaling in human sperm cells, Endocrinology source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    BP-4 tends to accumulate more among benzophenone-type UV filters in placenta, with concentrations between 0.25 and 5.41 ng/g.

    “Of all the benzophenone-type UV filters tested, benzophenone-4 (BP-4) (12) was the UV filter that tends to accumulate more among this type of compounds in placenta with concentrations between 0.25 ng/g and 5.41 ng/g [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] 2016, Determination of parabens and benzophenone-type UV filters in human placenta: First description of the existence of benzyl paraben and benzophenone-4, Environ. Int. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    UVR can negatively impact photosynthesis, cell division of endosymbiotic organisms, reproduction, and induce photo-oxidative stress in corals.

    “The negative impact on photosynthesis, cell division of endosymbiotic organisms, reproduction, and induction of photo-oxidative stress are also other effects that UVR can cause on corals [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Shick, 1996, Effects of ultraviolet radiation on corals and other coral reef organisms, Glob. Chang. Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A commercial Olea europaea extract with 20% oleuropein displays DPPH radical scavenging (IC50 = 11.75 μg/mL) and photoprotective activity with SPF 22 and λmax 376 nm.

    “This extract displayed 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 11.75 μg/mL) and photoprotective activity exhibiting a SPF value of 22 and a maximum wavelength (λmax) of 376 nm [101].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [101] Paiva, 2019, Photoprotection assessment of olive (Olea europaea L.) leaves extract standardized to oleuropein: In vitro and in silico approach for improved sunscreens, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EHMC, PABA derivative, and octocrylene were detected at 3992 ng/g dw, 833 ng/g dw, and 1765 ng/g dw in M. galloprovincialis, evidencing bioaccumulation.

    “In addition, EHMC (21), PABA derivative (24), and octocrylene (30), were detected at 3992 ng/g dry weight (dw), 833 ng/g dw, and 1765 ng/g dw, respectively, in M. galloprovincialis, which evidenced the higher ability of these organisms to bioaccumulate these compounds [53].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Rosain, 2014, Detection of emerging contaminants (UV filters, UV stabilizers and musks) in marine mussels from Portuguese coast by QuEChERS extraction and GC-MS/MS, Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    C. obtusa leaves extract at 20 μg/mL has SPF 16 without cytotoxic effect in keratinocyte HaCaT cell line.

    “Alves et al. (2016) also proved the photoprotective effect of C. obtusa leaves extract at 20 µg/mL (SPF = 16) without cytotoxic effect in keratinocyte HaCaT cell line [103].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [103] Alves, 2016, Cecropia obtusa, an Amazonian ethanolic extract, exhibits photochemoprotective effect in vitro and balances the redox cellular state in response to UV radiation, Ind. Crops Prod. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cecropia obtusa leaves extract has DPPH, superoxide, and singlet oxygen scavenging capacity (IC50 1.63, 0.34, 0.55 μg/mL) and maintains ROS equilibrium in HaCaT cells.

    “Regarding leaves extract of Cecropia obtusa, it was demonstrated promising DPPH radical, superoxide radical, and singlet oxygen scavenging capacity (IC50 values of 1.63 µg/mL, 0.34 µg/mL, and 0.55 µg/mL, respectively), and the ability of maintaining the reactive oxygen species (ROS) species’ equilibrium in HaCaT cells [103].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [103] Alves, 2016, Cecropia obtusa, an Amazonian ethanolic extract, exhibits photochemoprotective effect in vitro and balances the redox cellular state in response to UV radiation, Ind. Crops Prod. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EHMC, Padimate O, and octocrylene were detected in Portuguese marine mussels M. galloprovincialis and M. edulis, with octocrylene at higher concentrations (2-7112 ng/g).

    “EHMC (21), Padimate O (24), and octocrylene (30) were detected in Portuguese marine mussels, M. galloprovincialis and M. edulis, being octocrylene (30) detected in higher concentrations (2–7112 ng/g), in both organisms [14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Bachelot, 2012, Organic UV filter concentrations in marine mussels from French coastal regions, Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Terrestrial contamination by UV filters can occur through wastewater discharges, disposal of product packages, and indoor dust.

    “The contamination of terrestrial environment could also occurred by wastewaters discharges, disposal of product packages in inappropriate locations, and even in indoor dust that drives to an environment issue, contaminating both land and terrestrial organisms [84].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [84] Huang, 2021, Risks of organic UV filters: A review of environmental and human health concern studies, Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Benzophenone and dibenzoylmethane derivatives are possibly the most toxic UV filters due to aromatic ketones not easily recognised by human metabolic enzymes, inducing toxic and allergic reactions, and due to photoisomerisation forming toxic reactive photodegradation products.

    “Possibly, the most toxic UV filters are mentioned to be the benzophenone and dibenzoylmethane derivatives due to the presence of aromatic ketones, which are not easily recognised by metabolic enzymes in humans, thus inducing toxic and allergic reactions [18], and also because of the photoisomerisation process leading to the formation of toxic and reactive photodegradation products [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] Bahia, M.F. (2003). Proteção Solar—Actualização, Universidade do Porto. [1st ed.].

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] Bonda, C.A., and Lott, D. (2016). Sunscreen photostability. Principles and Practice of Photoprotection, Springer International Publishing. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EHMC at common environmental concentrations (96.0-395.6 μg/kg) causes changes in metabolic pathways, increased leukocytes, and oxidative stress in Oncorhynchus mykiss, without mortality or behavioural changes.

    “For fish Oncorhynchus mykiss, changes in metabolic pathways, increase in leukocytes and oxidative stress were detected, using common environmental concentrations (96.0–395.6 μg/kg) of EHMC (21) [60]. Despite this, no mortality and non-behavioral changes were observed [60].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Cahova, 2021, The biological activity of the organic UV filter ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Sci. Total Environ. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In vitro, 10 of 29 UV filters at 10 μM induced Ca2+ production, and nine activated the Ca2+ channel.

    “In total, 10 of the 29 UV filters analysed (concentration 10 µM) induced Ca2+ production, and other nine activated the respective Ca2+ channel.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Rehfeld, 2016, Chemical UV filters mimic the effect of progesterone on Ca2+ signaling in human sperm cells, Endocrinology source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Among compounds 46-49, metabolite 49 was the most successful in inhibiting ROS generation through UVA-photoinduced damage in irradiated HaCaT keratinocyte cells.

    “Among all the compounds, 49 was the most successful in inhibiting the generation of ROS through UVA-photoinduced damage in irradiated HaCaT keratinocyte cells”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Teixeira, 2021, In Vitro Evaluation of the Photoprotective Potential of Quinolinic Alkaloids Isolated from the Antarctic Marine Fungus Penicillium echinulatum for Topical Use, Mar. Biotechnol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Benzophenones 65 and 66 were considered the most promising, showing photoprotective activity and non-phototoxic results, confirmed by PIF values less than 1.3.

    “Compounds 65 and 66 were considered as the most promising, showing photoprotective activity and non-phototoxic results, confirmed by PIF values as less than 1.3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [131] Fumagalli, 2017, Novel benzophenone-3 derivatives with promising potential as UV filters: Relationship between structure, photoprotective potential and phototoxicity, Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolites from ethyl acetate extract of marine fungi Penicillium echinulatum include quinolinic alkaloids and are photoprotective with λmax = 287 (48), λc = 335 nm (48), λmax = 330 (49), λc = 334 nm (49).

    “| Metabolites from ethyl acetate extract of marine fungi Penicillium echinulatum | Quinolinic Alkaloids | Photoprotective | λmax = 287 (48)λc = 335 nm (48)λmax = 330 (49)λc = 334 nm (49) | [123] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Teixeira, 2021, In Vitro Evaluation of the Photoprotective Potential of Quinolinic Alkaloids Isolated from the Antarctic Marine Fungus Penicillium echinulatum for Topical Use, Mar. Biotechnol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolites from aqueous methanolic extract of cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa include MAAs shinorine (43) and porphyra-334 (45) and are photoprotective with λmax = 334 nm.

    “| Metabolites from aqueous methanolic extract of cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa | MAAs shinorine (43) and porphyra-334 (45) | Photoprotective | λmax = 334 nm | [118] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [118] Liu, 2004, Occurrence of mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) in the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa, J. Plankton Res. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Thalassiolin B (55) from ethanolic extract of Thalassia testudinum repairs acute UVB-damaged skin, suppressing skin damage by 90% at 240 μg/cm2.

    “| Metabolite from ethanolic extract of plant Thalassia testudinum | Thalassiolin B (55) | Repair of Acute UVB-Damaged Skin | Skin damage suppression (with 55 at 240 μg/cm2) = 90% | [125] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [125] Regalado, 2009, Repair of UVB-damaged skin by the antioxidant sulphated flavone glycoside thalassiolin B isolated from the marine plant Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig, Mar. Biotechnol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolites 48 and 49 were identified in major quantity in the collected extract, with critical wavelengths λc = 335 nm and 334 nm, respectively.

    “Metabolites 48 and 49 were identified in major quantity in the collected extract, with critical wavelength (λc) of 335 nm and 334 nm, respectively [123].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Teixeira, 2021, In Vitro Evaluation of the Photoprotective Potential of Quinolinic Alkaloids Isolated from the Antarctic Marine Fungus Penicillium echinulatum for Topical Use, Mar. Biotechnol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolites from dichloromethane/methanol (2:1) extract of algae Bostrychia radicans-associated fungi Annulohypoxylon stygium have PIF = 1.00 (50 and 51) and PIF = 5.2 (54) in phototoxicity assay with 3T3 murine fibroblasts.

    “| Metabolites from dichloromethane/methanol (2:1) extract of algae Bostrychia radicans -associated fungi Annulohypoxylon stygium | | Phototoxicity (3T3 murine fibroblasts) | PIF = 1.00 (50 and 51) PIF = 5.2 (54) | [124] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [124] Maciel, 2018, Photoprotective potential of metabolites isolated from algae-associated fungi Annulohypoxylon stygium, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compound 63 was the most promising octocrylene-related derivative and behaved as a broad band UVA/UVB filter.

    “The most promising derivative was 63, which behaved as a broad band UVA/UVB filter [130].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] Polonini, 2014, Synthesis and evaluation of octocrylene-inspired compounds for Uv-filter activity, Quim. Nova source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The MAAs palythine (41), asterina-330 (42), and shinorine (43) were non-cytotoxic and non-photounstable.

    “which showed antioxidant, antiaging, and photoprotective effect in HaCaT keratinocytes, being demonstrated as non-cytotoxic and non-photounstable [119].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] Rangel, 2020, Assessment of the photoprotective potential and toxicity of Antarctic red macroalgae extracts from Curdiea racovitzae and Iridaea cordata for cosmetic use, Algal Res. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolite from ethanolic extract of plant Thalassia testudinum is thalassiolin B (55) and has antioxidant (DPPH) activity with IC50 = 100 μg/mL.

    “| Metabolite from ethanolic extract of plant Thalassia testudinum | Thalassiolin B (55) | Antioxidant (DPPH) | IC50 = 100 μg/mL | [125] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [125] Regalado, 2009, Repair of UVB-damaged skin by the antioxidant sulphated flavone glycoside thalassiolin B isolated from the marine plant Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig, Mar. Biotechnol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among eight octocrylene (30)-related compounds (57-64), compounds 60, 61, and 63 displayed the best UVB protection effect, while compounds 61-63 presented the best results concerning protection against UVA.

    “Among these, 60, 61, and 63 displayed the best UVB protection effect, while compounds 61–63 presented the best results concerning protection against UVA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] Polonini, 2014, Synthesis and evaluation of octocrylene-inspired compounds for Uv-filter activity, Quim. Nova source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolites from ethyl acetate extract of marine fungi Penicillium echinulatum (quinolinic alkaloids) show phototoxicity in HaCaT keratinocytes, reducing ROS by 43% at 200 μg/mL (49).

    “| Metabolites from ethyl acetate extract of marine fungi Penicillium echinulatum | Quinolinic Alkaloids | Phototoxicity (HaCaT keratinocytes cells) | Reduction of ROS (43%) at 200 µg/mL (49) | [123] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Teixeira, 2021, In Vitro Evaluation of the Photoprotective Potential of Quinolinic Alkaloids Isolated from the Antarctic Marine Fungus Penicillium echinulatum for Topical Use, Mar. Biotechnol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The antioxidant potential and ease of introduction into cosmetic formulations are the main strengths of botanical extracts and metabolites.

    “The antioxidant potential and easily introduction in cosmetic formulations are the main strengths of botanical extracts and metabolites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The marine-derived metabolites palythine (41), asterina-330 (42), shinorine (43), porphyra-334 (45), and scytonemin (44) have excellent protective ability against UVR, with scytonemin being a UVA/UVB absorber.

    “Considering marine-derived metabolites, MAAs, palythine (41), asterina-330 (42), shinorine (43), porphyra-334 (45), and scytonemin (44) have an excellent protective ability against UVR, being 44 an UVA/UVB absorber.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    At 1 mg/mL, methanolic extract of Curdiea racovitzae and Iridaea cordata showed % cell viability = 89 and 73, respectively, in HaCaT keratinocytes.

    “| Methanolic extract of red macroalgae Curdiea racovitzae and Iridaea cordata | MAAs, with major quantity of palythine (41), asterina-330 (42), and shinorine (43) | Cytotoxicity (HaCaT keratinocytes cell line) | At 1 mg/mL% cell viability = 89 (C. racovitzae) % cell viability = 73 (I. cordata) | [119] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] Rangel, 2020, Assessment of the photoprotective potential and toxicity of Antarctic red macroalgae extracts from Curdiea racovitzae and Iridaea cordata for cosmetic use, Algal Res. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PABA methyl ester (71) and PABA methyl stearate (72) have SPF values of 20.60 and 26.17, respectively.

    “Later, new PABA derivatives, PABA methyl ester (71) and PABA methyl stearate (72), were prepared and evaluated for their photoprotective potential, revealing SPF values of 20.60 and 26.17, respectively [133].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133] Abbas, 2019, Synthesis, characterization and sunscreen protection factor of novel synthesized Para Amino Benzoic Acid (PABA) esters, J. Chem. Soc. Pak. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The presence of hydroxyl groups is a common structural feature of the most promising secondary metabolites with antioxidant activity.

    “Interestingly, the presence of hydroxyl groups is a common structure feature for the most promising secondary metabolites with antioxidant activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metabolites from extracts of cyanobacteria Stigonema sp., Scytonema sp. and Lyngbya sp. include scytonemin (44) and are photoprotective with λmax = 252, 278, 300, 386 nm.

    “| Metabolite from extracts of cyanobacteria Stigonema sp., Scytonema sp. and Lyngbya sp. | Scytonemin (44) | Photoprotective | λmax = 252, 278, 300, 386 nm | [121] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [121] Proteau, 1993, The structure of scytonemin, an ultraviolet sunscreen pigment from the sheaths of cyanobacteria, Experientia source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CeO2 is commercialised in some photoprotective formulations with silica coating, due to its high photocatalytic activity, which is responsible for oxidation and degradation of other formulations' components.

    “In fact, it is commercialised in some photoprotective formulations but with silica coating, due to its high photocatalytic activity, responsible for oxidation and degradation of other formulations’ components [128].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [128] Yabe, 2003, Cerium oxide for sunscreen cosmetics, J. Solid State Chem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Platyfish Xiphophorus produces melanin (56), which inhibits the formation of pyrimidine dimers, offering UV photoprotection.

    “the platyfish Xiphophorus, capable of producing melanin (56), acting as an inhibitor of the formation of pyrimidine dimers, thus offering UV photoprotection [126].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126] Ahmed, 1993, Ultraviolet Radiation-induced DNA Damage and Its Photorepair in the Skin of the Platyfish Xiphophorus, Cancer Res.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among 1,3,5-triazine derivatives 90-97, compound 97 displayed the most promising antioxidant activity and revealed the highest SPF and UVA protection factor.

    “Among 1,3,5-triazine derivatives 90–97, 97 displayed the most promising antioxidant activity and revealed the highest SPF and UVA protection factor [25].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Reis, 2019, Synthesis and evaluation of 1,3,5-triazine derivatives as sunscreens useful to prevent skin cancer, Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Platyfish Xiphophorus metabolite melanin (56) photo-repairs skin by stimulating melanin production, which reduced formation of pyrimidine dimers.

    “| Platyfish Xiphophorus metabolite | Melanin (56) | Photo-repair of the skin | Stimulate the production of melanin, which reduced the formation of pyrimidine dimers. | [126] |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126] Ahmed, 1993, Ultraviolet Radiation-induced DNA Damage and Its Photorepair in the Skin of the Platyfish Xiphophorus, Cancer Res.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Doping CeO2 with Ca2+ and Zn2+ ions could reduce its photocatalytic activity and particle size without interfering with its photoprotective potential.

    “However, this gap could be ameliorated if CeO2 was doped with Ca2+ and Zn2+ ions, which could reduce its photocatalytic activity and particle size, without interfering with its photoprotective potential [128].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [128] Yabe, 2003, Cerium oxide for sunscreen cosmetics, J. Solid State Chem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The high molecular weight of compound 72 should avoid its penetration through the skin, making it a potential UV filter with a safer profile.

    “It is noteworthy to mention that the high molecular weight of 72 should avoid its penetration through the skin, making this compound a potential UV filter with a safer profile.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133] Abbas, 2019, Synthesis, characterization and sunscreen protection factor of novel synthesized Para Amino Benzoic Acid (PABA) esters, J. Chem. Soc. Pak. source
    • Rests on an assumption: Avoiding skin penetration by a high-molecular-weight UV filter improves its safety profile.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Marine secondary metabolites exhibit photoprotection properties, namely MAAs, which are able to absorb both UVA and UVB radiation.

    “In addition to botanical extracts, marine secondary metabolites also exhibit photoprotection properties, namely MAAs, which are able to absorb both UVA and UVB radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The existence of privileged structures in nature, produced by plants and marine organisms, is vastly known.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Decomposition of UV filters detected in aquatic environments leads to formation of toxic by-products with putative negative effects for humans and accumulation in marine organisms.

    “The decomposition of the UV filters detected in aquatic ambient was already reported, leading to the formation of toxic by-products with putative negative effects for human beings and accumulation in marine organisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The catechol group and 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyl pattern each revealed interesting antioxidant potential, namely as scavenger of the DPPH radical.

    “With the aim of obtaining multifunctional compounds, the presence of at least one hydroxyl group is essential for antioxidant activity, the catechol group and 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyl pattern being the most favourable substitution moieties in the aromatic rings, which each revealed interesting antioxidant potential, namely as scavenger of the DPPH radical.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compounds 128 and 131-135 possess characteristics of broad-spectrum molecules, with 128, 134, and 135 having interesting DPPH radical scavenging activity.

    “Amongst all, compounds 128 and 131–135 possess characteristics of broad-spectrum molecules, having 128, 134, and 135 an interesting DPPH radical scavenging activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [138] Reis, 2014, Synthesis, antioxidant and photoprotection activities of hybrid derivatives useful to prevent skin cancer, Bioorg. Med. Chem. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Avobenzone (11) is the UV filter most studied regarding photoinstability and negative effects, and is one of the most toxic UV filters when exposed to UV radiation.

    “Avobenzone (11) is the UV filter most studied regarding to its photoinstability and negative effects, hence being one of the most toxic UV filters when exposed to UV radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Quinoline derivative 176 is considered the most promising compound among 167-178, with the highest SPF value.

    “Other potential synthetic UV filters with different scaffolds have been described, namely those with heterocyclic rings, such as the new UV absorbers 167–178 based on quinoline derivatives with SPF and λc values between 2 and 11 and 376 and 388 nm, respectively, being the quinoline derivative 176 considered as the most promising compound with the highest SPF value [143].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143] Polonini, 2013, Quinolines derivatives as novel sunscreening agents, Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Certain chemical groups, such as aromatic ketones, unsaturated systems, and camphor structure, are susceptible of inducing allergic and sensitisation skin reactions.

    “The presence of certain chemical groups, such as aromatic ketones, unsaturated systems, and camphor structure, are some of the chemical moieties susceptible of inducing allergic and sensitisation skin reactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    From all the synthetic series presented, camphor (7)- and avobenzone (11)-inspired derivatives are safer and photostable, and octocrylene (30)-inspired derivatives have improved photoprotective performance.

    “From all the synthetic series presented, the camphor (7)- and avobenzone (11)-inspired derivatives, which are safer and photostable, and octocrylene (30)-inspired derivatives with improved photoprotective performance can be highlighted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Botanical extracts and metabolites, namely catechin (36), epicatechin (37), gyrophoric acid (39), and resveratrol (40), are plant-derived metabolites that could be highlighted for their photoprotective ability and especially for their antioxidant potential due to the presence of hydroxyl groups in their structure.

    “Botanical extracts and metabolites, namely catechin (36), epicatechin (37), gyrophoric acid (39), and resveratrol (40), are some of the plant-derived metabolites that could be highlighted for their photoprotective ability, but especially for their antioxidant potential due to the presence of hydroxyl groups in their structure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The existence of privileged structures in nature, produced by plants and marine organisms, is vastly known.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    All hybrids 128-135 revealed photoprotective activity with SPF values between 2 and 5 and ability to absorb UVA region, confirmed by λmax values in the range of 369 nm and 389 nm.

    “All compounds revealed photoprotective activity with SPF values varied between 2 and 5, and an ability to absorb the UVA region of the electromagnetic spectrum, confirmed by their λmax values in the range of 369 nm and 389 nm [138].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [138] Reis, 2014, Synthesis, antioxidant and photoprotection activities of hybrid derivatives useful to prevent skin cancer, Bioorg. Med. Chem. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    All compounds 126-141 revealed promising UV filter properties, with SPF values between 2 and 20.

    “All compounds revealed promising UV filter properties, with SPF values between 2 and 20 [139].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] Polonini, 2013, Photoprotective activity of resveratrol analogues, Bioorg. Med. Chem. source
93 of 93

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Environmental concentrations of UV filters are around 500 times lower than those used in toxicity studies.

    “However, the environmental concentrations of these UV filters are around 500 times lower than those used in the studies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The use of sunscreens is an established and recommended practice to protect skin from solar-induced damage.

    “The use of sunscreens is an established and recommended practice to protect skin from solar-induced damage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are few studies about the toxicity of UV filters for human beings.

    “There are few studies about the toxicity for human beings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The use of human biological samples is always required to confirm the repercussion of UV filters in human beings.

    “Nevertheless, the use of human biological samples is always required to confirm the repercussion of UV filters in human beings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Isolation and purification of botanical and marine natural products with photoprotective activity is time-consuming and yields low amounts, which is a major drawback for obtaining compounds for skin care applications.

    “Moreover, the isolation and purification of the botanical and marine natural products with photoprotective activity is a time-consuming process, being obtained in a low amount, which is a major drawback for obtaining compounds to be further explored for skin care applications.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Despite advances in analytic techniques, it is not always possible to identify the active metabolite.

    “Despite all the advances on analytic techniques, it is not always possible to identify the active metabolite.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Marine organisms produce bioactive compounds with high structural complexity because of the stress conditions in which these secondary metabolites live.

    “Marine organisms also produce bioactive compounds with high structural complexity, due to the stress conditions in which these secondary metabolites live.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In vitro photoprotective activity (e.g., SPF, λc, antioxidant activity) of a compound is predictive of its potential utility as a UV filter in sunscreen formulations.

    “Therefore, CePO4 is a potential future novel, stable, and efficient inorganic UV filter [129].”
    “making this compound a potential UV filter with a safer profile.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Avoiding skin penetration by a high-molecular-weight UV filter improves its safety profile.

    “It is noteworthy to mention that the high molecular weight of 72 should avoid its penetration through the skin, making this compound a potential UV filter with a safer profile.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The existence of privileged structures in nature, produced by plants and marine organisms, is vastly known.

    “The existence of privileged structures in nature, produced by plants and marine organisms, is vastly known.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Despite the strict regulation framework, new scientific evidences have raised concern about toxic effects of UV filters in humans and marine ecosystems.

    “Despite the strict regulation framework, new scientific evidences have raised concern about their toxic effects in humans and marine ecosystems.”
11 of 11

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Resveratrol analogue numbering overlaps earlier series

    Minor

    The resveratrol-inspired series is numbered 126-141, overlapping numbers 128-135 already assigned to a separate series of hybrids. The two passages describe different reported series under the same identifiers.

  • Olive-leaf extract is assigned oleuropein's IC50

    Minor

    The prose assigns an IC50 of 11.75 μg/mL to the olive-leaf extract, but Table 3 assigns that value to oleuropein and reports 13.8 μg/mL for the extract.

  • Citation year for Paris et al. disagrees with the reference

    Minor

    The text dates the cited Paris et al. study to 2019, whereas reference 39 lists it as published in 2009.

  • Mussel study's location conflicts with its cited reference

    Minor

    The text describes the mussels in study 14 as Portuguese, while the cited reference identifies its study as concerning French coastal regions.

  • Compound 7 has two different chemical identities

    Minor

    The paper identifies compound 7 as 3-(4-methylbenzylidene) camphor, but later calls it 3-benzylidene camphor. These names specify different compounds.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. L’Oreal (2021, August 03). Garnier Ambre Solaire. Available online: https://www.loreal.com/it-it/italy/press-release/group/garnier-ambre-solaire/.
  2. Stiefel, 2013, Reactions of cosmetic UV filters with skin proteins: Model studies of esters with primary amines, Trends Photochem. Photobiol., 15, 105

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Jesus, A., Sousa, E., Cruz, M., Cidade, H., Lobo, J., & Almeida, I.
Affiliations
  • Universidade do Porto (PT)
  • Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
  • Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular (PT)
Corresponding author
  • Cidade, Honorina
  • Almeida, Isabel
ORCID
Venue
Pharmaceuticals
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2022-02-22
Volume
15
Issue
3
Pages
263
ISSN
1424-8247 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ph15030263
PMC
PMC8955451
OpenAlex
W4213441235
Semantic Scholar
02e6334ff88a6ed76f6888ef8a3088fbbfab9eb4
Cited by
132
References
140
Citations by year
2026: 25 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 11
FWCI
4.86
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Pharmaceuticals (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Estudo Geral (Universidad de Coimbra) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Estudo Geral (Universidade de Coimbra) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
  • Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit-UCIBIO is financed by national funds from FCT/MCTES (UID/Multi/04378/2020)
  • The structured program of R&amp;D&amp;I ATLANTIDA—Platform for the monitoring of the North Atlantic Ocean and tools for the sustainable exploitation of the marine resources, supported by the North Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE2020) through the Eu (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000040)
  • The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), through the Centro 2020 Regional Operational Programme under project HealthyAging2020 (CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-000012)
  • National funds under the project 47239 - Cork2Cosmetic (NORTE-01-0247-FEDER-047239)
  • PhD research grant fully supported by national funding by FCT, Foundation for Science and Technology (UI/BD/151319/2021)
  • National funds through FCT (Group of Natural Products and Medicinal Chemistry-CIIMAR) (UIDB/04423/2020 and UIDP/04423/2020)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Skin Protection and Aging
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › melanin and skin pigmentation
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Photochromic and Fluorescence Chemistry
Keywords
UV filters, sunscreen, photostability, photoprotection, skin protection, marine toxicity, environmental safety, natural products, synthetic derivatives, benzimidazole, benzotriazole, hydroxycinnamic acids, xanthones, triazines, nanotechnology

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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