Using structural equation modeling to investigate relationships among ecological variables

Malaeb, Ziad A.; Summers, J. Kevin; Pugesek, Bruce H.

doi:10.1023/a:1009662930292

Cited by 178Psychometric Methodologies and TestingStatistical Methods and ApplicationsWater Quality and Pollution Assessment

Using structural equation modeling to investigate relationships among ecological variables

Malaeb, Ziad A., Summers, J. Kevin, Pugesek, Bruce H.·2000·Environmental and Ecological Statistics

DOI 10.1023/a:1009662930292

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SEM is a multicomponent statistical process that can allow researchers to construct theoretical models and test if relationships fit a dataset, providing evidence for or against the theory as a useful explanatory framework.
“SEM is a multicomponent statistical process which can allow researchers to construct theoretical models, such as the CBPM, and test to see if the relationships set out in such theories fit a dataset, providing evidence for, or against, the theory as being a useful explanatory framework (Malaeb et al., 2000).”
From Testing Mindfulness Mechanisms of Action on the Stress and Burnout of Social Workers (2024) · cites this paper as Malaeb et al., 2000

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“Examples include using SEM to model macroinvertebrate distribution in riverine ecosystems (Bizzi et al., 2013) and estuaries (Malaeb et al., 2000), aquatic and estuarine macrophytes (Gustaffson & Boström, 2013; Hung et al., 2007), lacustrine phytoplankton dynamics (Arhonditsis et al., 2006;…”
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“Cet indice est le plus utilisé (Malaeb et al. 2000; Arhonditsis et al. 2006) et recommandé lorsque la taille de l’échantillon (nombre de cellules paysagères ici) est élevée (Malaeb et al. 2000; Lee et al. 2008).”
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Combined remediation effect of ryegrass-earthworm on heavy metal composite contaminated soil
Lu, X., Chen, X., Vancov, T., Zhu, F., Zhu, W., Hong, L., Yao, Y., Li, P., Wang, W., & Hong, C. (2025) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138477 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Evaluating the mechanisms of the impacts of key factors on soil soluble organic nitrogen concentrations in subtropical mountain ecosystems
Xing, S., Zhou, B., Li-ming, Z., Mao, Y., Wang, F., & Chen, C. R. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.097 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Dynamics of ecosystem carbon stocks in a chronosequence of nitrogen‐fixing Nepalese alder ( Alnus nepalensis D. Don.) forest stands in the central Himalayas
Joshi, R. K., & Garkoti, S. C. (2021) · Land Degradation and Development · doi:10.1002/ldr.3901 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“SEM is a robust and advanced multivariate statistical technique that allows for multivariate hypothesis testing where certain factors can simultaneously act as predictors and responses at the same time (Malaeb et al., 2000; Grace et al., 2010).”
Background
Differential responses of forest strata species richness to paleoclimate and forest structure
Wang, S., Jiménez‐Alfaro, B., Pan, S.-A., Yu, J., Sanaei, A., Sayer, E. J., Ye, J., Hao, Z., Fang, S., Lin, F., et al. (2021) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119605 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Modeling inorganic nutrient distributions among hydrologic gradients using multivariate approaches
Paudel, B., & Montagna, P. A. (2014) · Ecological Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2014.06.003 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Technological dimension of customer relationship management
Hashemzadeh, G. (2011) · Indian Journal of Science and Technology · doi:10.17485/ijst/2011/v4i11.31 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Metagenomics reveals the potential transmission risk of resistomes from urban park environment to human
Wang, X., Qian, Y., Wang, Y., Wang, S., Bi, J., Shi, C., Han, Q., Wan-Yan, R., Yu, Q., & Li, H. (2024) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135387 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Temporal variation in microbial and plant biomass during summer in a Mediterranean high-mountain dry grassland
Gutiérrez‐Girón, A., Rubio, A., & Gavilán, R. G. (2013) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-013-1887-6 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“proposed is based on an a priori hypotheses of causal links among variables (Shipley 1999; Malaeb et al. 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
Structural equation model of the relationship between metals in contaminated soil and in earthworm (Metaphire californica) in Hunan Province, subtropical China
Wang, K., Qiao, Y., Li, H., Zhang, H., Yue, S., Ji, X., & Liu, L. (2018) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.03.038 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Examining Individual Differences in Wellbeing, Anxiety and Depression in Psoriasis Using a Clinically Modified Buddhist Psychological Model
Maddock, A., Hevey, D., D’Alton, P., & Kirby, B. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-019-09686-4 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Microclimate diversity drives grape quality difference at high-altitude: Observation using PCA analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM)
Zhang, K., Cao, J., Yin, H., Wang, J., Wang, X., Yang, Y., & Xi, Z. (2024) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114644 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Structural equation-based latent growth curve modeling of watershed attribute-regulated stream sensitivity to reduced acidic deposition
Chen, Y., & Lin, L.-S. (2010) · Ecological Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2010.05.010 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Impact of Advancement of Technology, Competitive Pressure, User Expectation on Continuous Digital Disruption: Mediating Role of Perceive Ease of Use
Addison, S. (2021) · Open Journal of Business and Management · doi:10.4236/ojbm.2021.94109 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Although SEM was introduced earlier to the education sciences, this method has recently begun to become popular in research (Malaeb et al., 2000) (Figure 8).”
Method
Strategic management of technical university: structural equation modelling approach
Dandagi, S., Bhushi, U., Bagodi, V., & Sinha, D. (2016) · Journal of Modelling in Management · doi:10.1108/jm2-05-2014-0034 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Influence of land cover, point source pollution, and granularity on the distribution of metals, metalloids, and organic matter in the river and stream sediments in the Republic of Korea
Kim, H. G., & Hong, S. (2023) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-023-27080-4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The structural model is a statistical data analysis tool formed by multiple regression, path, and confirmatory factor analyses, which depict the direct and indirect relationships between latent variables (Malaeb et al. 2000).”
Method
Restoration of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata)-hardwood ecosystems severely impacted by the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis)
Elliott, K. J., Vose, J. M., Knoepp, J. D., & Clinton, B. D. (2012) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.02.034 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Structural equation modeling (SEM) is an advanced multivariate statistical process used to construct theoretical concepts, test hypotheses, account for measurement errors, and consider both direct and indirect effects of variables on one another (Malaeb et al., 2000; Kline, 2005).”
Brand Equity as a Predictor of Repurchase Intention of Male Branded Cosmetic Products in South Africa
Pather, P. (2017) · Business & Social Sciences Journal (BSSJ) · doi:10.26831/bssj.2016.2.1.1-23 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
An exploration of direct and indirect drivers of herbivore reproductive performance in arid and semi arid rangelands by means of structural equation models
Texeira, M. A., Baldi, G., & Paruelo, J. M. (2012) · Journal of Arid Environments · doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.01.017 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“These approaches have received increased attention in ecological studies (Almaraz, 2005; Iriondo et al., 2003; Malaeb et al., 2000; Mysterud et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethod
The Role of River Morphodynamic Disturbance and Groundwater Hydrology As Driving Factors of Riparian Landscape Patterns in Mediterranean Rivers
Rivaes, R. P., Pinheiro, A. N., Egger, G., & Ferreira, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.01612 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“SEM is a multivariate statistical modeling technique that combines factor analysis and regression analysis to validate fundamental theories with empirical data, and therefore provides a deeper analysis than traditional statistical methodologies (Malaeb et al., 2000).”
Method
Contribution Analysis of the Spatial-Temporal Changes in Streamflow in a Typical Elevation Transitional Watershed of Southwest China over the Past Six Decades
Meng, C., Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Li, J., & Li, M. (2019) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f10060495 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Integratıng bıophılıc desıgn elements ınto offıce desıgns
Demirkol, A. K., & Önaç, A. K. (2024) · Ain Shams Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.asej.2024.102962 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Density-dependent selection effect of dominant species rather than species diversity increased aboveground biomass accumulation in a temperate oak forest
Wang, G., Liu, Y., Wu, X., Wang, T., Liu, H., Chen, Z., Yu, C., Liu, S., & Li, Z. (2025) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2025.122563 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Fine-scale spatial variation in plant species richness and its relationship to environmental conditions in coastal marshlands
Mancera, J. E., Meche, G., Cardona-Olarte, P., Castañeda‐Moya, E., CHIASSON, R. L., Geddes, N. A., Schile, L. M., Wang, H. G., Guntenspergen, G. R., & Grace, J. B. (2005) · Plant Ecology · doi:10.1007/s11258-004-2486-7 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“When there is substantive information available to guide the development of theoretically-justified models, methods such as structural equation modeling can provide a more appropriate means of specifying relationships (Bollen 1989; Malaeb et al. 2000; Pugesek et al. 2003).”
Method
Integrating environmental and LULC drivers of groundwater droughts in groundwater-dependent ecosystems: a machine learning (XGBoost)-SEM analysis with ecosystem implications
Banda, K. E., Shilengwe, C., & Nyambe, I. (2025) · Ecological Processes · doi:10.1186/s13717-025-00633-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“SEM represents a set of integrated multivariate techniques (e.g. measurement theory, factor analysis, regression, path analysis and simultaneous equation modelling), which are used to describe multiple relationships among a number of latent variables (Malaeb et al. 2000).”
EFA-CFA integrated approach for groundwater resources sustainability in agricultural areas under data scarcity challenge: case study of the Souassi aquifer, Central-eastern Tunisia
Hajji, S., Karoui, S., Nasri, G., Allouche, N., & Bouri, S. (2021) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-020-01155-5 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Dominant roles but distinct effects of groundwater depth on regulating leaf and fine-root N, P and N:P ratios of plant communities
Yin, W., Wang, J., Wang, X., He, Y., Li, G., & Li, J. (2021) · Journal of Plant Ecology · doi:10.1093/jpe/rtab062 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Biocrust diversity enhances dryland saline soil multifunctionality
Kakeh, J., Sanaei, A., Sayer, E. J., Hazhir, S., Gorji, M., & Mohammadi, M. H. (2022) · Land Degradation and Development · doi:10.1002/ldr.4476 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The goodness of fit of each model was assessed using a χ2 test and the associated p-value, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), Bentler's comparative fit index (CFI), and the goodness of fit index (GFI; Malaeb et al., 2000).”
Method
Effects of Tree Diversity, Functional Composition, and Large Trees on the Aboveground Biomass of an Old-Growth Subtropical Forest in Southern China
Wang, Y., Song, Z., Zhang, X., & Wang, H. (2023) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f14050994 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Relative growth rate for trees at the growth stage is coordinated with leaf bulk modulus of elasticity and osmotic potential in a subtropical forest of China
Lin, Z., Fan, D., Ma, S., Miao, W., & Wang, X. (2022) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109135 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
What causes greater deviations from predictions of metabolic scaling theory in earlier successional forests?
Sun, H., Wang, X., Wu, P., Wei, H., Xu, K., Liang, P., Liu, C., Yin, W., & Xia, X. (2017) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2017.09.007 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“SEM is an advanced and robust multivariate statistical method that allows for hypotheses testing of complex path-relation networks (Malaeb et al., 2000; Grace et al., 2007).”
Method
Manganese toxicity suppressing nitrogen-fixing bacteria growth and impairing nitrogen uptake and utilization in sugarcane
Zhu, H., Pan, J., Wei, Y., Lan, H., Yang, S. H., Li, X., & Tang, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2025.1548896 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Exploring the influence of meteorological conditions on the performance of a waste stabilization pond at high altitude with structural equation modeling
Ho, L. T., Pham, D. T., Echelpoel, W. V., Alvarado, A., Espinoza-Palacios, J., Arévalo-Durazno, M. B., & Goethals, P. L. M. (2018) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2018.254 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Changes in soil properties and the phoD-harboring bacteria of the alfalfa field in response to phosphite treatment
Li, Z., Wang, J., Wu, Y., Hu, J., Cong, L., Yang, C., Fu, J., & Sun, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.1013896 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“A structural equation model (SEM) was established using the AMOS software (IBM SPSSS 26.0.0; Malaeb et al., 2000) to illustrate the relationship among soil properties, phoD-harboring bacterial diversity and richness, and ALP activity under the different P fertilizer.”
MethodInfluential
Use of Structural Equation Modeling in Ecotourism: A Model Proposal
Gültekin, Y. S., Gültekin, P., Uzun, O., & Gök, H. (2017) · Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences (PEN) · doi:10.21533/pen.v5.i2.1768 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Wood density is a sustainability indicator for the management of dry zone homegarden agroforests: Evidences from biodiversity–ecosystem function relationships
Ali, A., & Mattsson, E. (2018) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.04.024 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Examining Potential Psychological Protective and Risk Factors for Stress and Burnout in Social Workers.
Maddock, A. (2025) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-024-00924-3 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Multivariate control of root biomass in a semi-arid grassland on the Loess Plateau, China
Zhu, H., Fu, B., Lv, N., Wang, S., & Hou, J. (2014) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2067-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Structural equation modeling (SEM) is an advanced multivariate statistical method which has received increasing attention in recent ecological studies (Malaeb et al. 2000; Grace 2006).”
The relationship between organisational commitment, job satisfaction and employee retention of detectives in the SAPS in the City of Tshwane
Moshabi, C. S., Schultz, C. M., & Plessis, F. D. (2024) · SA Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v22i0.2266 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Deciphering the key factors affecting pesticide residue risk in vegetable ecosystem
Liu, D., Chen, T., Gong, Y., Chen, X., Zhang, W., Xiao, R., Yang, Y., & Zhang, T. (2024) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.119452 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Using a structural equation model to assess the spatiotemporal dynamics and driving factors of phytoplankton in the plateau Hongfeng Reservoir in southwest China
Pan, S., Li, Q., Meng, C., Han, M., Ma, Y., & Brancelj, A. (2022) · Aquatic Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10452-022-09963-9 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“It is based on the covariance matrix of variables, which are used to analyze their relationships (Malaeb et al. 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
The relationship between the functional diversity, functional redundancy and community stability in mountain rangelands
Sadeghinia, M., Kargar, M., & Jafarian, Z. (2022) · Community Ecology · doi:10.1007/s42974-022-00128-0 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“SEM was performed employing the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012).”
MethodInfluential
Influence of Job Satisfaction on Employee Relations and Work Engagement
Shabane, Z. W., Schultz, C., Lessing, K., & Hoek, C. E. V. (2022) · African journal of employee relations · doi:10.25159/2664-3731/9669 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Authors: Malaeb, Z. A., Summers, J. K., & Pugesek, B. H.
Affiliations: United States Geological Survey (US)
Environmental Protection Agency (US)
ORCID: Summers, J. Kevin
Venue: Environmental and Ecological Statistics
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2000-03
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 93-111
ISSN: 1352-8505 (ISSN-L)
1573-3009
DOI: 10.1023/a:1009662930292
OpenAlex: W1574417742
Cited by: 178
References: 22
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 1.81
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (tdm)
www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (vor)
Locations: Environmental and Ecological Statistics (publishedVersion)
Funders: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
Keywords: sediment contamination, natural variation, biodiversity, growth potential, estuarine ecosystems, indirect effects, latent variables, environmental monitoring, ecosystem health

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