Gender differences in responses to traumatic events: A prospective study
Abstract
Gender differences in psychological responses to motor vehicle accidents were examined as part of a large-scale prospective study of PTSD. Participants were recruited from an emergency room (n = 275) and interviewed 1 week, 1 month, and 4 months later. No gender differences were seen in the prevalence or recovery from PTSD, or in symptom levels at 1- and 4 months. Women had a higher prevalence of lifetime- and postaccident generalized anxiety disorder. Gender differences were found regarding the type, but not the total number, of potentially traumatic events previously experienced. These results suggest that gender differences in responses to traumatic events are not explained by exposure as such, but rather may result from gender-specific attributes of the event.
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Males and females do not differ in their exposure to the overall number of adversities in childhood but rather in their exposure to specific types of childhood maltreatment.
“The finding that gender did not moderate the association between childhood maltreatment and suicide attempts seems to be consistent with the extant literature which suggests that males and females do not differ in their exposure to the overall number of adversities in childhood but rather in their exposure to specific types of childhood maltreatment (Freedman et al., 2002).”
From Childhood maltreatment and adult suicidality: a comprehensive systematic review with meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Freedman et al., 2002
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Does psychological adjustment of melanoma survivors differs between genders?
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Mental Health Impact of the World Trade Center Attacks on Displaced Chinese Workers
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“This could explain why not all studies on gender differences detected female gender as a risk factor (29, 30).”
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ResultGender, Distress, and Coping in Response to Terrorism
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“Conversely, Freedman et al. (2002) concluded that women do not have a greater sensitivity to traumatic stress but, rather, normally accentuate responses to specific elements of some traumatic events.”
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“…also exist in psychological risk factors, apparent in higher lifetime rates for depression [31] and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) [32, 33], and increased susceptibility to the onset of (traumatic) stress-related psychiatric disorders in women [34], even though the number of…”
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“…trauma studies suggest that women have a higher likelihood of PTSD (Tolin & Foa, 2008) and a few trauma studies suggest women have a higher likelihood of depression (Weissman et al., 2005), but the literature is not altogether conclusive (Freedman et al., 2002; Yasan, Saka, Ozkan, & Ertem, 2009).”
BackgroundSex and the noradrenergic system
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“Women typically report a higher lifetime incidence of rape and sexual assault and men a higher lifetime incidence of physical assault and combat experiences; however, differences in PTSD rates across sex are not robust over a lifetime (Freedman et al, 2002).”
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Patterson, S. L., Henson, S. J. S., & Prather, A. A. (2020) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.24228 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The THQ has been culturally adapted and translated into Portuguese (37), Spanish (38), Hebrew (39), Kurdish (40), French, Danish, Urdu, Icelandic, Japanese, and Vietnamese.”
Interrupting traumatic memories in the emergency department: a randomized controlled pilot study
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“The sample was 75% male, which might impact PTSD development rates, although previous studies from this ED population have consistently found no gender differences for PTSD development (Freedman et al., 2002; Shalev & Freedman, 2005).”
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“A majority of authors investigating responses to traumatic events indicate that women are at more risk for PTSD symptoms than men (Blanchard, Hickling, & Taylor, 1995 ; Brave Heart, 1999 ; Breslau, Davis, Andreski, & Peterson, 1991 ; Freedman et al, 2002 ; Kessler et al, 1995 ).”
BackgroundWhat Are the Predictors of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Among Road Traffic Accident Survivors
Sabahi, Z., Hasani, P., Salehi-pourmehr, H., Beheshti, R., & Sadeghi-Bazargani, H. (2024) · Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001739 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Are women breaking the glass ceiling? A gendered analysis of the duration of sick leave in Spain
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“Moreover, women tend to pre-sent higher odds of dysphoria, anxiety, and depression after these types of surgical interventions or traumatic events, thus expanding their sick leave durations (Freedman et al., 2002; Kempen et al., 2003; Modica et al., 2014; Oksuzyan et al., 2018).”
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“…of trauma exposure, other commonly experienced forms of psychopathology for trauma-exposed individuals include depression, grief, symptoms of psychosis, panic and anxiety (Briere & Scott, 2006; Falsetti & Resnick, 1997; Freedman et al., 2002; Kessler et al., 1995; Shear & Smith-Caroff, 2002).”
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Sensory modulation and trauma-related symptoms during rocket attacks
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“Specifically, women (Brunet et al., 2001; Freedman et al., 2002; Irish et al., 2011; Neria et al., 2010), younger individuals (Hamam et al., 2021), and individuals with a history of psychiatric disorders (Gelkopf et al., 2017) have been found to have higher levels of distress or symptomatology…”
BackgroundPTSD and Associated Mental Health Consequences of Motor Vehicle Collisions
O'Donnell, M., Creamer, M., & Ludwig, G. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-045048-3.00013-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pandey, A., Adhikari, B., Bista, B., Lamichhane, B., Joshi, D., Kc, S., Sharma, S., & Baral, S. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.07.22.23293031 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mainiero, L. A., Gibson, D., & Sullivan, S. (2008) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9365-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This study was consistent with other research on gender differences in response to disasters (Freedman et al, 2002) and specifically associated with the events of September 11th, 2001 (Pulcino et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGender differences in the duration of sick leave: Economics or biology?
Martín‐Román, Á. L., Moral, A., & Pinillos-Franco, S. (2026) · Economics and Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2026.101573 · Cited by 3
Verma, K., Amitabh, Chandra, M., Prasad, D. N., Debnath, C., Mohanty, H., Kohli, E., & Reddy, M. P. K. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.02.022 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Richmond, T., & Jacoby, S. F. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-045048-3.00005-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Female Risk Factors for Post-Infarction Depression and Anxiety: Trial Design
Liblik, K., Hu, R., Mensour, E. A., Foldes-Busque, G., Sedlak, T., Udell, J., Mulvagh, S., & Johri, A. (2022) · The Cardiology · doi:10.1159/000528386 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sezgin, U., & Punamäki, R. (2008) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325020802173694 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Women more often than men are subjected to sexual assault, rape, and domestic violence, whereas men more often are exposed to community and military violence, as well as accidents (Breslau et al, 1999 ; Freedman et al, 2002 ).”
BackgroundFoti, G., Merlo, L., Finstad, G. L., & Giorgi, G. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12141403 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In line with the high scores on the PSI-4 scale, women report acute emotional responses more frequently than men [50], and experience intense fear, panic, depression and anxiety as well as intrusive thoughts and avoidance [51].”
Yonkers, K. A., Howell, H. B., Sevar, K., & Castle, D. J. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107045132.019 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Catastrophic Wildfires & Suicide
Hubbard, C., Abashidze, N., Hennighausen, H., & James, A. (2026) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-026-01100-6
“First, exposure to treatment may be gender specific (Freedman et al. 2002).”
Hubbard, C., James, A., & Scott, M. (2026) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2026.109530
Stress and Animal Models of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Cohen, H., Richter‐Levin, G., & Zohar, J. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118083222.ch19
Fathers and Traumatized Youth: Key Variables of Gender, Emotion, and Recovery Needs
Trahan, M. H., & Cheung, M. (2008) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1080/19361520802314948
Detection of urban spot in the plain of Mina (Western Algeria)
Ahmed, H., Djillali, B., Djamel, A., & Abdelkrim, B. (2021) · doi:10.31396/biodiv.jour.2021.12.1.155.169
- Authors
- Freedman, S. A., Gluck, N., Tuval‐Mashiach, R., Brandes, D., Peri, T., & Shalev, A. Y.
- Affiliations
- Hadassah Medical Center (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Freedman, Sara A.
- Venue
- Journal of Traumatic Stress
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 407-413
- ISSN
- 0894-9867 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-6598
- OpenAlex
- W2114210242
- Cited by
- 112
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 3.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Traumatic Stress (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-50379, R01MH050379)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- gender differences, post-traumatic stress disorder, motor vehicle accidents, traumatic events, generalized anxiety disorder, PTSD prevalence, PTSD recovery, potentially traumatic events, women
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Traffic, Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Prospective Studies, Surveys and Questionnaires, Severity of Illness Index, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Prevalence, Recovery of Function
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