Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder.
Abstract
One of the most consistent findings in the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the higher risk of this disorder in women. Explanations reviewed within a psychobiological model of PTSD suggest that women's higher PTSD risk may be due to the type of trauma they experience, their younger age at the time of trauma exposure, their stronger perceptions of threat and loss of control, higher levels of peri-traumatic dissociation, insufficient social support resources, and greater use of alcohol to manage trauma-related symptoms like intrusive memories and dissociation, as well as gender-specific acute psychobiological reactions to trauma. This review demonstrates the need for additional research of the gender differences in posttraumatic stress. Recommendations are made for clinical practice.
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Men and women exhibit different patterns of media consumption and varying emotional responses to distressing media content.
“Research has consistently shown that men and women exhibit different patterns of media consumption and varying emotional responses to distressing (media) content [196,197].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [197]
Men may experience higher levels of anger and frustration when exposed to content that challenges their values or sense of control.
“Men may experience higher levels of anger and frustration when exposed to content that challenges their values or sense of control [197].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [197]
Females are twice as likely to develop PTSD as males.
“A consistent pattern in PTSD research is that females are twice as likely to develop PTSD as males 76 .”
From Post‐traumatic stress disorder: a state‐of‐the‐art review of evidence and challenges (2019) · cites this paper as [76]
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Trauma and PTSD in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys
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“It has been proposed that hyper-activation of neural fear processing networks can explain gender differences in PTSS prevalence (Olff et al., 2007) .”
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“Our results should be viewed with some caution, however, because data were not available to evaluate PTSD and other specific anxiety disorders that may be more prevalent among females than among males in the wake of adverse events (Afifi et al., 2008; Dube et al., 2005; Olff et al., 2007).”
ResultSex influences on the neurobiology of learning and memoryPreprint
Andreano, J. M., & Cahill, L. F. (2009) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.918309 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
“ERP studies have also shown differing response patterns to emotional material between men and women (Orozco and Ehlers 1998; Gasbarri et al. 2007).”
ResultCortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Meewisse, M.-L., Reitsma, J. B., De Vries, G.-J., Gersons, B. P. R., & Olff, M. (2007) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.024877 · Cited by 661 · see citing works
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“PTSD in adulthood has a higher prevalence in women (Olff et al., 2007) and has been associated with increased presence of childhood trauma or maltreatment (Bremner et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationChild Abuse and Neglect in the UK Today
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“2020; Olff et al .”
Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index: part I.
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“PTSD is more prevalent in women than in men (55).”
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Sex differences in animal models of psychiatric disorders
Kokras, N., & Dalla, C. (2014) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.12710 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
“In this context, animal models can assist in studying sex differences in PTSD (Olff et al., 2007; Zohar et al., 2008; Cohen and Yehuda, 2011; Cohen et al., 2012).”
BackgroundDuncan, L. E., Ratanatharathorn, A., Aiello, A. E., Almli, L. M., Amstadter, A. B., Ashley-Koch, A. E., Baker, D. G., Beckham, J. C., Bierut, L. J., Bisson, J., et al. (2018) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2017.77 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Haagsma, J. A., Polinder, S., Olff, M., Toet, H., Bonsel, G. J., & van Beeck, E. F. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-1 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
“This association is in line with findings in the general literature [37] and has been reported by other studies on PTSD following injuries [3, 38-40].”
ResultSelf-citationInflammation and post‐traumatic stress disorder
Hori, H., & Kim, Y. (2019) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12820 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
“Other potential mechanisms that explain sex differences in PTSD may include HPA axis (re)activity, oxytocin, as well as psychological factors, such as differential threat perceptions and coping styles.(161) Inflammatory pathology in PTSD may also be different between sexes, which has been poorly understood and therefo…”
BackgroundThe lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands
de Vries, G., & Olff, M. (2009) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20429 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Self-citationSex differences in anxiety and emotional behavior
Donner, N. C., & Lowry, C. A. (2013) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-013-1271-7 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
“of women combined with a different perception of the PTSD-inducing event [80, 275].”
BackgroundMild traumatic brain injury does not predict acute postconcussion syndrome
Meares, S., Shores, E. A., Taylor, A., Batchelor, J., Bryant, R. A., Baguley, I. J., Chapman, J., Gurka, J. A., Dawson, K. S., Capon, L., et al. (2007) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2007.126565 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
“19 These sex differences may be due to acute psychobiological reactions which have been proposed to differ in females relative to males following acute stress.(40) Age has been found to be an inconsistent predictor of outcome and was not found to be associated with acute PCS.”
BackgroundCloitre, M., Hyland, P., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R., Roberts, N. P., Karatzias, T., & Shevlin, M. (2019) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22454 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Mosher, C. E., Redd, W. H., Rini, C. M., Burkhalter, J. E., & DuHamel, K. N. (2009) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.1399 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
“To date, only one prospective study and one retrospective report have examined PTSD symptoms before and after HSCT [49,51], and, thus, little is known regarding changes in PTSD symptoms over this time period.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZoladz, P. R., & Diamond, D. M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.024 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
“…et al., 2009; Zona and Milan, 2011; Irish et al., 2011), which may prove to be relevant to enhancing our understanding of why women have a higher lifetime prevalence of PTSD than men (Tolin and Foa, 2006b; Stein et al., 2000b; Pratchett et al., 2010; McLean and Anderson, 2009; Olff et al., 2007b).”
InfluentialGender Differences in Self-Reported Posttraumatic Growth: A Meta-Analysis
Vishnevsky, T., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., & Demakis, G. J. (2010) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01546.x · Cited by 387 · see citing works
“Additionally, women are more likely than men to experience acute psychological and biological responses to trauma including intense fear, avoidance, intrusive thoughts, horror, helplessness, panic, and anxiety (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodThe role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review
Polak, A. R., Witteveen, A. B., Reitsma, J. B., & Olff, M. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.001 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“With the relatively high lifetime prevalence of PTSD around 7% (De Vries and Olff, 2009; Olff et al., 2007) and the great individual distress as well as societal burden associated with PTSD, our study adds important findings particularly because executive function is crucial for effective occupational functioning (Kal…”
BackgroundSelf-citationCivil War, Reintegration, and Gender in Northern Uganda
Annan, J. R., Blattman, C., Mazurana, D. E., & Carlson, K. (2011) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002711408013 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“Others posit that females have more ongoing stressors, that females are biologically more vulnerable, or that females are more likely to blame themselves for events (Olff et al. 2007).”
BackgroundBebbington, P., Jonas, S., Kuipers, E., King, M., Cooper, C., Brugha, T., Meltzer, H., McManus, S., & Jenkins, R. (2011) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.083642 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Lottrup, L., Grahn, P., & Stigsdotter, U. K. (2012) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.09.002 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Gallagher, M. W., Long, L. J., & Phillips, C. A. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22882 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Post-learning intranasal oxytocin modulates human memory for facial identity
Savaskan, E., Ehrhardt, R., Schulz, A., Walter, M., & Schächinger, H. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.12.004 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
“…disorders including stress-related disorder, social-phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), personality disorders and depression (Maes et al., 1999; Bartz and Hollander, 2006; Hollander et al., 2007; Olff et al., 2007; Scantamburlo et al., 2007).”
BackgroundEstrogen Levels Are Associated with Extinction Deficits in Women with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Glover, E. M., Jovanović, T., Mercer, K. B., Kerley, K. A., Bradley, B., Ressler, K. J., & Norrholm, S. D. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.02.031 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
“nor types of traumatic events nor the presence of comorbid psychiatric disorders significantly account for increased PTSD risk in women (2,3,5).”
BackgroundReward functioning in PTSD: a systematic review exploring the mechanisms underlying anhedonia
Nawijn, L., van Zuiden, M., Frijling, J. L., Koch, S. B. J., Veltman, D. J., & Olff, M. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.019 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Self-citationPrevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Prisoners
Baranyi, G., Cassidy, M., Fazel, S., Priebe, S., & Mundt, A. P. (2018) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxx015 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model
Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.26068 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“Although negative social support may act as a partial mediator (Andrews et al., 2003), the general conclusion is that it cannot fully account for sex differences in PTSD (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialIntelligence and Other Predisposing Factors in Exposure to Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Breslau, N., Lucia, V. C., & Alvarado, G. F. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.11.1238 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Chemtob, C. M., Nomura, Y., Rajendran, K., Yehuda, R., Schwartz, D., & Abramovitz, R. (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01458.x · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Foa, E., Gillihan, S. J., & Bryant, R. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612468841 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Does it hurt to ask? A meta-analysis of participant reactions to trauma research
Jaffe, A. E., DiLillo, D., Hoffman, L., Haikalis, M., & Dykstra, R. E. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.004 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Perceived past, present, and future control and adjustment to stressful life events
Frazier, P., Keenan, N., Anders, S., Perera, S., Shallcross, S., & Hintz, S. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022405 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
DiGrande, L., Perrin, M. A., Thorpe, L. E., Thalji, L., Murphy, J., Wu, D., Farfel, M. R., & Brackbill, R. M. (2008) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20345 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Combined pharmacotherapy and psychological therapies for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Hetrick, S. E., Purcell, R., Garner, B., & Parslow, R. (2010) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007316.pub2 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Barber, B. K. (2008) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025408090972 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Canetto, S. S., & Chen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.042 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Risk Factors for the Development of Psychopathology Following Trauma
Sayed, S., Iacoviello, B. M., & Charney, D. S. (2015) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0612-y · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Felmingham, K., Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Liddell, B., Falconer, E., Peduto, A., & Bryant, R. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017551 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“That is, the greater incidence of PTSD in women may involve hyperactivation of fearprocessing networks (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundThe genetic background to PTSD
Broekman, B. F. P., Olff, M., & Boer, F. (2006) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.10.001 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychological outcomes following the Victorian Black Saturday bushfires
Bryant, R. A., Waters, E., Gibbs, L., Gallagher, H. C., Pattison, P., Lusher, D., MacDougall, C., Harms, L., Block, K., Snowdon, E., et al. (2014) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867414534476 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“The increased risk for women of developing PTSD (in this case, as related to the bushfires), which may be attributed to hormonal, situational, or social factors that can all contribute to this increased risk, is a very consistent finding across most studies (Olff et al., 2007).”
ResultPietrzak, R., Goldstein, R., Southwick, S., & Grant, B. (2011) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3182303775 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“One possible explanation for the association of PTSD status with hypertension only in men is that men may show greater adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol release in response to stress (54,55), as well as sensitized physiological hyperarousal symptoms and increased aggressive behaviors (56), which may in turn inc…”
BackgroundAsmundson, G. J. G., & Stapleton, J. A. (2008) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506070801969005 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Molecular and Cellular Substrates of Stress
Bangasser, D. A., & Valentino, R. J. (2012) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s10571-012-9824-4 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“For example, men experience more physical attacks and serious accidents, while women are more likely to experience interpersonal assaults and sexual abuse (Breslau et al. 1998; Breslau 2002; Perkonigg et al. 2000; Kessler et al. 1995; Olff et al. 2007; Tolin and Foa 2006).”
Changes in cortisol and DHEA plasma levels after psychotherapy for PTSD
Olff, M., de Vries, G.-J., Güzelcan, Y., Assies, J., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2007) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.04.001 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationPost traumatic stress disorder and coping strategies among adult survivors of earthquake, Nepal
Baral, I. A., & Bhagawati, K. C. (2019) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2090-y · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Shalev, I., Moffitt, T. E., Braithwaite, A. W., Danese, A., Fleming, N. I., Goldman-Mellor, S., Harrington, H. L., Houts, R. M., Israel, S., Poulton, R., et al. (2014) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2013.183 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Suicide Attempts, Gender, and Sexual Abuse: Data From the 2000 British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey
Bebbington, P., Cooper, C., Minot, S., Brugha, T. S., Jenkins, R., Meltzer, H., & Dennis, M. (2009) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030310 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Jin, Y., Xu, J., & Liu, D. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-014-0865-5 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Luo, H., Hu, X., Liu, X., Ma, X., Guo, W., Qiu, C., Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Zhang, X., Zhang, W., et al. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.12.020 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Gender differences in PTSD symptoms: An exploration of peritraumatic mechanisms
Irish, L. A., Fischer, B., Fallon, W. F., Spoonster, E., Sledjeski, E. M., & Delahanty, D. L. (2010) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.004 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“Finally, the primary purpose of the present analyses was to test previously hypothesized mechanisms for gender differences in PTSS (e.g. Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundChronic Stress- and Sex-Specific Neuromorphological and Functional Changes in Limbic Structures
McLaughlin, K. J., Baran, S. E., & Conrad, C. D. (2009) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-009-8079-7 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“As we begin to unravel the complexity of brain plasticity and function, which includes a variety of brain structures and behaviors, we increase the awareness of the neuromorphological and functional similarities among disorders such as MDD, PTSD, and Alzheimer’s disease.”
BackgroundInfluentialMorris, M. C., Hellman, N. M., Abelson, J. L., & Rao, U. (2016) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.09.001 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“Theoretical models have proposed that sex differences in neuroendocrine stress responses may account, in part, for elevated PTSD risk in women (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialAlcántara, C., Casement, M. D., & Lewis‐Fernández, R. (2012) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.10.005 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Neurobiology of comorbid post‐traumatic stress disorder and alcohol‐use disorder
Gilpin, N. W., & Weiner, J. L. (2016) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12349 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Heeke, C., Kampisiou, C., Niemeyer, H., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1583524 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Pierrehumbert, B., Torrisi, R., Laufer, D., Halfon, O., Ansermet, F., & Beck Popovic, M. (2010) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.12.016 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Aakvaag, H. F., Thoresen, S., Wentzel‐Larsen, T., Dyb, G. A., Røysamb, E., & Olff, M. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.06.004 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationBoals, A. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1548 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Babb, J. A., Masini, C. V., Day, H. E. W., & Campeau, S. (2013) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.12.051 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
The importance of the peritraumatic experience in defining traumatic stress.
Bovin, M. J., & Marx, B. P. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0021353 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Childhood Antecedents of Exposure to Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Storr, C. L., Ialongo, N. S., Anthony, J. C., & Breslau, N. (2007) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.2007.164.1.119 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
HPA- and HPT-axis alterations in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder
Olff, M., Güzelcan, Y., de Vries, G.-J., Assies, J., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2006) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.09.003 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationMcDermott, M. J., Tull, M. T., Gratz, K. L., Daughters, S. B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2009) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.006 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
A psychobiological rationale for oxytocin in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Witteveen, A., & Denys, D. (2010) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s109285290000047x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationPotentially traumatic events in a transgender sample: Frequency and associated symptoms.
Shipherd, J. C., Maguen, S., Skidmore, W. C., & Abramovitz, S. M. (2011) · Traumatology An International Journal · doi:10.1177/1534765610395614 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
de Bont, P. A. J. M., van den Berg, D. P. G., van der Vleugel, B. M., de Roos, C., de Jongh, A., van der Gaag, M., & van Minnen, A. (2015) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148486 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Muslim men and women’s perception of discrimination, hate crimes, and PTSD symptoms post 9/11.
Abu-Ras, W. M., & Suárez, Z. E. (2009) · Traumatology An International Journal · doi:10.1177/1534765609342281 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“Because research shows that women are at higher risk for PTSD (Gross & Graham-Bermann, 2006; Olff et al., 2007; Tolin & Foa, 2006), we tried to quantify these gender differences as they relate to variables associated with PTSD.”
BackgroundLehavot, K., Stappenbeck, C. A., Luterek, J. A., Kaysen, D. L., & Simpson, T. L. (2013) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0032266 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Animal model for PTSD: From clinical concept to translational research
Cohen, H., Kozlovsky, N., Alona, C., Matar, M. A., & Zohar, J. (2011) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.04.023 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“Virtually every large-scale epidemiologic study has documented a greater prevalence of PTSD in women than men (Breslau et al., 1999; Brewin et al., 2000; Freedman et al., 2002; Robin et al., 1997; Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundStreet, A. E., & Dardis, C. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.03.001 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The disparate impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of female and male caregivers
Wade, M., Prime, H., Johnson, D., May, S. S., Jenkins, J. M., & Browne, D. T. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113801 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Health‐related quality of life of COVID‐19 patients after discharge: A multicenter follow‐up study
Qu, G., Zhen, Q., Wang, W., Fan, S., Wu, Q., Zhang, C., Li, B., Liu, G., Yu, Y., Li, Y., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.15733 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“…of life; MCS, mental component summary; PCS, physical component summary. addition, it has been proposed that differences in coping strategies and differential neural network activation between women and men may explain gender differences in mental problems (Olff et al., 2007; Schmied et al., 2015).”
BackgroundHussain, D., & Bhushan, B. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20801 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Zona, K., & Milan, S. (2011) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9649-3 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Sachs, E., Rosenfeld, B. D., Lhewa, D., Rasmussen, A., & Keller, A. S. (2008) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20324 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“Most studies of Tibetan refugees have also oversampled women, who typically report higher levels of psychological distress than men (e.g., Olff, Langeland, & Draijer, 2007 ).”
BackgroundWegerer, M., Kerschbaum, H., Blechert, J., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2014) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2014.10.001 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Koch, S. B. J., van Zuiden, M., Nawijn, L., Frijling, J. L., Veltman, D. J., & Olff, M. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.11.018 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationTrauma, PTSD, and binge and hazardous drinking among women and men: Findings from a national study
Kachadourian, L. K., Pilver, C. E., & Potenza, M. N. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.04.018 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Ahmed-Leitao, F., Spies, G., van den Heuvel, L. L., & Seedat, S. (2016) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2016.09.008 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“Reference lists of the selected articles were also checked for additional publications that may have met our criteria (we were able to include two more papers that met our eligibility criteria) (Pederson et al., 2004; Veer et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultAlmuneef, M. A., ElChoueiry, N., Saleheen, H. N., & Al‐Eissa, M. A. (2017) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-017-0588-9 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Salfi, F., Lauriola, M., Amicucci, G., Corigliano, D., Viselli, L., Tempesta, D., & Ferrara, M. (2020) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2020.100259 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“…side since the risk for psycho-pathology markedly differs between men and women, and women represent a high-risk category for mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Malhi and Mann, 2018; World Health Organization, 2020b; Olff et al., 2007).”
The Mental Health Impact of Volunteering in a Disaster Setting
Thormar, S. B., Gersons, B. P. R., Juen, B. H., Marschang, A., Djakababa, M. N., & Olff, M. (2010) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181ea1fa9 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Lifetime prevalence of PTSD in the general population is around 6% to 8% (Frans, 2003; Kessler et al., 1995; De Vries and Olff, 2009; Who.org, 2007) with women twice as likely as men to have PTSD at some point in their lives (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLommen, M. J. J., & Restifo, K. (2009) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9248-x · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“…findings in the general PTSD literature, results of earlier studies among men and women with a severe mental illness found no differences (Brewin et al. 2000; Cascardi et al. 1996; Davidson and Smith 1990; McFarlane et al. 2001; Mueser et al. 1998, 2001; Ollf et al. 2007; Switzer et al. 1999).”
ResultA Study on the Psychological Wound of COVID-19 in University Students
Padrón, I., Fraga, I., Vieitez, L., Montes, C., & Romero, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589927 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Ying, L., Wu, X., Lin, C., & Chen, C. (2013) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-013-0400-3 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“One possible explanation of this finding is the gender difference in neuroendocrine response, which can be induced by gender-specific cognitive appraisal and coping processes in the face of traumatic events [47].”
BackgroundThe intersection of gender and resilience
Hirani, S. A. A., Lasiuk, G. C., & Hegadoren, K. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12313 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Komarovskaya, I., Loper, A. B., Warren, J. I., & Jackson, S. L. (2011) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2011.572989 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“Olff, Langeland, and Draijer ( 2007 ) conducted an extensive review of the PTSD literature and concluded that common differences in trauma exposure were heightened by other factors that were more common in the life experience of the female participants (e.”
BackgroundExploring adversity and the potential for growth among elite female athletes
Tamminen, K. A., Holt, N. L., & Neely, K. C. (2012) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.07.002 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Sex differences in extinction recall in posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot fMRI study
Shvil, E., Sullivan, G. M., Schafer, S., Markowitz, J. C., Campeas, M., Wager, T. D., Milad, M. R., & Neria, Y. (2014) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2014.02.003 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Why women in the general population have twice the lifetime risk of PTSD as men remains unclear (Breslau & Anthony, 2007; Kessler et al., 1995; Olff et al., 2007; Tolin & Foa, 2006; Weissman et al., 2005).”
BackgroundBrown, M. J., Perera, R. A., Masho, S. W., Mezuk, B. R., & Cohen, S. A. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.02.044 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“The disparities by sex in the role of mediators in the association between ACEs and intimate partner aggression may be due to differences in emotional, behavioral, and psychobiological responses to stress (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundWitnessing images of extreme violence: a psychological study of journalists in the newsroom
Feinstein, A., Audet, B., & Waknine, E. (2014) · JRSM Open · doi:10.1177/2054270414533323 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Fourth, female gender also emerged as an independent predictor of multiple indices of psychopathology, a result that is supported by the broader psychiatric literature.(25) The present study is not without certain limitations.”
- Authors
- Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. R.
- Affiliations
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 183-204
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2072944527
- Semantic Scholar
- cb3fabbf50ff1505b95b8ac8786ada0903601aae
- Cited by
- 1,058
- References
- 259
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 66 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 41.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, gender differences, women, trauma exposure, threat perception, loss of control, social support, alcohol consumption, intrusive memories, psychobiological model, clinical practice
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Age Factors, Cognition, Culture, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Life Change Events, Male, Oxytocin, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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