Fire, Flood, and Drought: Extreme Climate Events Alter Flow Paths and Stream Chemistry
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Extreme climate events—such as hurricanes, droughts, extreme precipitation, and wildfires—have the potential to alter watershed processes and stream response. Yet due to the destructive and hazardous nature and unpredictability of such events, capturing their hydrochemical signal is challenging. A 5‐year postwildfire study of stream chemistry in the Fourmile Creek watershed, Colorado Front Range, USA, focused on high‐frequency storm sampling. During the study, the watershed was impacted by three additional extreme climate events—drought and two periods of extreme rainfall totals. These events altered concentration‐discharge relationships in ways that elucidate how hydrologic flow paths and source material availability affect stream water chemistry. Reduced infiltration after wildfire led to overland flow during thunderstorms, which conveyed ash and soil into streams. This resulted in elevated stream concentrations of constituents elevated in ash—Ca, K, Mg, alkalinity, and dissolved organic carbon—along with sediment and nitrate. Subsurface flow paths were bypassed, leading to low concentrations of Na and SiO 2, which are bedrock derived and not elevated in ash. During drought conditions, when stream discharge was <20% of average, concentrations of sediment, dissolved organic carbon, and Ca fell below average concentrations, but SiO 2 did not. Extreme rainfall totals saturated the subsurface and led to prolonged elevated stream discharge. Concentration‐discharge relationships for bedrock‐derived constituents, such as Ca and SiO 2, were altered in that time period, while those for dissolved organic carbon were not. Previous disturbances, including historical mining, also affect stream chemistry, and water‐quality impairment can be exacerbated by extreme climate events.
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Increased overland flow and decreased infiltration are expected to reduce groundwater recharge and lead to lower baseflows.
“Increased overland flow and decreased infiltration are expected to reduce groundwater recharge and lead to lower baseflows (Morales et al., 2013; Murphy et al., 2018; Parlak et al., 2015) and water quality models predict as much (Rodrigues et al., 2019).”
From Wildfire Induces Changes in Receiving Waters: A Review With Considerations for Water Quality Management (2022) · cites this paper as Murphy et al., 2018
Section 4.1.1 (page unavailable) says wildfire reduces infiltration and shifts runoff toward overland flow. The Conclusions table (page unavailable) also reports low subsurface connectivity during postwildfire thunderstorms. Neither passage establishes that this reduces groundwater recharge or leads to lower baseflows; the paper’s discussion of baseflow in Section 4.2 concerns stream chemistry instead. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStudies in more temperate, non-peatland areas away from acid deposition reported alkalinity increases, including in two streams draining burned watersheds in Colorado.
“By contrast, studies in more temperate, non-peatland areas away from acid deposition reported alkalinity increases, including in two streams draining burned watersheds in Colorado (Murphy et al., 2018; Rhoades et al., 2011).”
From Wildfire Induces Changes in Receiving Waters: A Review With Considerations for Water Quality Management (2022) · cites this paper as Murphy et al., 2018
The Abstract and §3.2 report elevated alkalinity during postwildfire storms at sites downstream of the burned area in Colorado's Fourmile Creek watershed. This supports the Colorado example, but this paper studies one watershed and does not establish that it was away from acid deposition; §4.2 discusses atmospheric nitrogen deposition in the area. The sentence's second citation may account for the other stream, but this source alone does not establish it. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWildfire often kills and partially combusts vegetation and can alter soil hydrophobicity, depending upon vegetation burned and fire severity.
“Wildfire often kills and partially combusts vegetation and can alter soil hydrophobicity, depending upon the vegetation burned and fire severity, among other factors (Chanasyk et al., 2003; Murphy et al., 2018; Shakesby & Doerr, 2006).”
From Wildfire Induces Changes in Receiving Waters: A Review With Considerations for Water Quality Management (2022) · cites this paper as Murphy et al., 2018
Section 4.1.1 (Wildfire; page not provided) says wildfires kill vegetation, combust surface organic matter, and alter soil hydraulic properties, reducing infiltration. It does not specifically mention soil hydrophobicity or say that the effects depend on vegetation type or fire severity. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Colorado, an increase in surface flow was associated with stream calcium and potassium increases, but not sodium and silica, since they are derived more from subsurface flow paths in that system.
“In Colorado, an increase in surface flow was associated with stream calcium and potassium increases, but not sodium and silica, since they are derived more from subsurface flow paths in that system (Murphy et al., 2018).”
From Wildfire Induces Changes in Receiving Waters: A Review With Considerations for Water Quality Management (2022) · cites this paper as Murphy et al., 2018
Increases in organic carbon have been observed in temperate and boreal regions.
“Increases in organic carbon have been observed in temperate (Emelko et al., 2011; Murphy et al., 2018; Writer et al., 2014) and boreal regions (Allen et al., 2003, 2005; Crilly et al., 2017).”
From Wildfire Induces Changes in Receiving Waters: A Review With Considerations for Water Quality Management (2022) · cites this paper as Murphy et al., 2018
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Building water resilience in the face of cascading wildfire risks
Belongia, M. F., Wagner, C. H., Quesnel, K. J., & Ajami, N. (2023) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adf9534 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
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Debris‐flow‐dominated sediment transport through a channel network after wildfire
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Wildfires: Identification of a new suite of aromatic polycarboxylic acids in ash and surface water
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Conceptualizing turbidity for aquatic ecosystems in the context of sustainable development goals
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Assessment of post-wildfire erosion risk and effects on water quality in south-western Australia
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Self-citationConnectivity of post‐fire runoff and sediment from nested hillslopes and watersheds
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Grand Challenges (and Great Opportunities) in Sedimentology, Stratigraphy, and Diagenesis Research
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Prolonged Drought in a Northern California Coastal Region Suppresses Wildfire Impacts on Hydrology
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Self-citationLeveraging Groundwater Dynamics to Improve Predictions of Summer Low‐Flow Discharges
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Effective kinetics driven by dynamic concentration gradients under coupled transport and reaction
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Heindel, R. C., Murphy, S. F., Repert, D. A., Wetherbee, G. A., Liethen, A., Clow, D. W., & Halamka, T. A. (2022) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2021ef002373 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Dynamic water‐quality responses to wildfire in Colorado
Clow, D. W., Akie, G. A., Murphy, S. F., & Gohring, E. J. (2024) · Hydrological Processes · doi:10.1002/hyp.15291 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationIntersection of Wildfire and Legacy Mining Poses Risks to Water Quality
Murphy, S. F., Blake, J. M., Ebel, B. A., & Martin, D. A. (2024) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.4c09489 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationGuo, D., Zhang, Q., Minaudo, C., Dupas, R., Duvert, C., Liu, S., Zhang, K., Bende‐Michl, U., & Lintern, A. M. (2025) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02044-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Partridge, T. F., Johnson, Z. C., Sleeter, R. R., Qi, S. L., Walvoord, M. A., Murphy, S. F., Peterman, C. L., & Ebel, B. A. (2024) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1728 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationChemical tracers for Wildfires–Analysis of runoff surface Water by LC/Q-TOF-MS
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Stream Chemistry After Colorado’s Largest Wildfire: Solute-Specific Responses to Ash and Rainstorms
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Summer runoff generation in foothill catchments of the Colorado Front Range
Bukoski, I. S., Murphy, S. F., Birch, A. L., & Barnard, H. (2020) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125672 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationEbel, B. A. (2022) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128019 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationHermes, A., Ebel, B., Murphy, S., & Hinckley, E. (2021) · Science of the Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142179 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationSarkissian, A. J., & Kutia, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Forests and Global Change · doi:10.3389/ffgc.2024.1533425 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Integrated water availability in the conterminous United States, 2010–20
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Shephard, Z. M., Partridge, T. F., Murphy, S. F., Walvoord, M. A., & Ebel, B. A. (2025) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179435 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Self-citationShort-term changes in ecosystem functioning after a wildfire in a tropical headwater stream
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Post-fire effects on dissolved organic carbon concentrations in freshwater streams: a meta-analysis
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Ebel, B. A., Hammond, J. C., Walvoord, M. A., Partridge, T. F., Rey, D. M., & Murphy, S. F. (2025) · Environmental Research Water · doi:10.1088/3033-4942/ae2a64 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Self-citationEnvironmental Persistence and Toxicity of Weathered Wildland Fire Retardants to Rainbow Trout
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Fire influence on land–water interactions in aridland catchments
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Tomaszewski, E. J., Murphy, S. F., Blake, J. M., Hornberger, M. I., & Clark, G. D. (2025) · Environmental Science Processes & Impacts · doi:10.1039/d5em00326a · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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The major element geochemistry of river waters: Fluxes, sources, and controls
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Groundwater Salinity: Applying the Specific Conductance and Water Type Proxy
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Chapter 6 : Land Cover and Land-Use Change. Fifth National Climate Assessment
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Murphy, S. F., McCleskey, R. B., Martin, D. A., Writer, J. H., & Ebel, B. A.
- Affiliations
- United States Geological Survey (US)
- Corresponding author
- Murphy, Sheila F.
- Venue
- Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
- Publisher
- American Geophysical Union (AGU)
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2513-2526
- ISSN
- 2169-8953 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-8961
- OpenAlex
- W2809896631
- Cited by
- 101
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 1.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1331828)
- U.S. Geological Survey
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Soil and Water Nutrient Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Hydrology and Watershed Management Studies
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Groundwater and Isotope Geochemistry
- Keywords
- climate extremes, forest fires, drought, extreme rainfall, stream water chemistry, concentration-discharge relationships, flow paths, surface runoff, ash transport, dissolved organic carbon, nitrate, calcium, silica, subsurface flow, water quality degradation, mining legacy
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