The DOI matches its Crossref record; 49 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?
Abstract
It has been widely asserted that low self-esteem causes violence, but laboratory evidence is lacking, and some contrary observations have characterized aggressors as having favorable self-opinions. In 2 studies, both simple self-esteem and narcissism were measured, and then individual participants were given an opportunity to aggress against someone who had insulted them or praised them or against an innocent third person. Self-esteem proved irrelevant to aggression. The combination of narcissism and insult led to exceptionally high levels of aggression toward the source of the insult. Neither form of self-regard affected displaced aggression, which was low in general. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened egotism as an important cause.
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In the citing paper
“the threatened egotism theory, which posits that narcissism, rather than self-esteem, predicts retaliatory aggression after negative feedback (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998).”
From Collective Narcissism: Political Consequences of Investing Self‐Worth in the Ingroup’s Image (2019) · cites this paper as Bushman & Baumeister, 1998
In the citing paper
“A large body of research suggests that when narcissists are criticized, humiliated, or outperformed by others, they seek to derogate them (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Horton & Sedikides, 2009; Kernis & Sun, 1994; Stucke & Sporer, 2002; Thomaes, Bushman, Stegge, & Olthof, 2008).”
From The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit (2020) · cites this paper as Bushman & Baumeister, 1998
In the citing paper
“For example, in a series of experiments, narcissists were more aggressive than nonnarcissists toward those who criticized or outperformed them (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Thomaes, Bushman, et al., 2008).”
From The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit (2020) · cites this paper as Bushman & Baumeister, 1998
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431 · Cited by 3,893
Self-citationAnderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 · Cited by 3,915
Self-citationUnraveling the Paradoxes of Narcissism: A Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1204_1 · Cited by 2,215
Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3): A Brief Measure of Dark Personality Traits
Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191113514105 · Cited by 2,162
The dirty dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad
Jonason, P. K., & Webster, G. D. (2010) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0019265 · Cited by 2,093
Metadata
- Authors
- Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Iowa State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bushman, Brad J.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1998-07
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 219-229
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2150232152
- Cited by
- 2,113
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 66 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 113 · 2020: 161 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 117 · 2017: 112 · 2016: 124 · 2015: 114 · 2014: 100 · 2013: 116 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 24.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh051482-03)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-51482)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- narcissism, self-esteem, egotism, displaced aggression, direct aggression, self-regard, violence, self-love, self-hatred
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aggression, Defense Mechanisms, Displacement, Psychological, Female, Hate, Humans, Internal-External Control, Love, Male, Narcissism, Personality Inventory, Self Concept, Students, Violence
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- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219
- The paper
- Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219
