Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F.; Smart, Laura; Boden, Joseph M.

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

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Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

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Individuals who do not meet the status expectations they feel entitled to are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior.
“A large body of evidence suggests that individuals who do not meet the status expectations they feel entitled to are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Denissen et al., 2018; Krizan & Johar, 2015; Rasmussen, 2016).”
From The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit (2020) · cites this paper as Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996

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Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 183 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Self-Compassion
NEFF, K. D. (2003) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860309027 · Cited by 6,436 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, most self-esteem measures do not distinguish between high-esteem individuals who feel superior to others and those who do not, and researchers such as Roy Baumeister and colleagues (Baumeister et al., 2000; Baumeister et al., 1996) argue that a significant subset of high self-esteem individuals are also n…”
Self-Compassion: An Alternative Conceptualization of a Healthy Attitude Toward Oneself
NEFF, K. (2003) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860309032 · Cited by 5,440 · see citing works
“Finally, as Baumeister et al. (1996) have argued, an inflated sense of self-esteem may lead to aggression and violence against those perceived to threaten the ego.”
BackgroundInfluential
Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431 · Cited by 3,893 · see citing works
Self-citation
Human Aggression
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 · Cited by 3,915 · see citing works
The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory
Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(00)80003-9 · Cited by 2,521 · see citing works
Self-citation
Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.
Sowislo, J. F., & Orth, U. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0028931 · Cited by 2,123 · see citing works
Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?
Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219 · Cited by 2,113 · see citing works
Self-citation
It's All about Me: Narcissistic Chief Executive Officers and Their Effects on Company Strategy and Performance
Chatterjee, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2007) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2189/asqu.52.3.351 · Cited by 2,074 · see citing works
“Selfesteem refers to an individual’s overall self-acceptance, selfliking, and self-respect (Harter, 1990; Baumeister, Smart, and Boden, 1996).”
An Organizing Framework for Collective Identity: Articulation and Significance of Multidimensionality.
Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin‐Volpe, T. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80 · Cited by 1,906 · see citing works
Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly
Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887 · Cited by 1,728 · see citing works
“Whereas self-compassion was predicted to be associated with more balanced reactions to difficult situations (Neff, 2003b), previous research has shown that people who are high in trait self-esteem or narcissism sometimes react strongly to events that threaten their ego or sense of control (Baumeister, Campbell, Kruege…”
TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Kernis, M. H. (2003) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1401_01 · Cited by 1,683 · see citing works
Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning.
Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004 · Cited by 1,627 · see citing works
“Although psychologists extolled the beneWts of self-esteem for decades, recent research has exposed potential costs associated with the pursuit of high self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004), including narcissism (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998), distorted self-perceptions (Sedikides, 1993), prejudice (Aberson, Healy, & Romer…”
Background
The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem
Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392 · Cited by 1,402 · see citing works
Reciprocal Effects of Self-Concept and Performance From a Multidimensional Perspective: Beyond Seductive Pleasure and Unidimensional Perspectives
Marsh, H. W., & Craven, R. G. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00010.x · Cited by 1,368 · see citing works
“In summary, we argue that Baumeister and his colleagues’ (Baumeister et al., 2003; but also see Baumeister et al., 1996, 2005) decision about what studies to include—and, more important, what studies to exclude—undermined the usefulness of their reviews for understanding the REM and self-concept…”
Background
Self‐Compassion Versus Global Self‐Esteem: Two Different Ways of Relating to Oneself
Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00537.x · Cited by 1,258 · see citing works
Self-compassion and Psychological Resilience Among Adolescents and Young Adults
Neff, K. D., & McGehee, P. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860902979307 · Cited by 1,232 · see citing works
“More troubling, the need for high self-esteem has been found to contribute to certain problematic behaviors, including bullying, aggression, self-enhancement bias, and narcissism (Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000 ; Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ; Crocker & Park, 2004 ).”
Self-compassion, Achievement Goals, and Coping with Academic Failure
Neff, K. D., Hsieh, Y.-P., & Dejitterat, K. (2005) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/13576500444000317 · Cited by 1,221 · see citing works
“Moreover, research indicates that the type of contingent self-esteem represented by performance-approach goals is linked to prejudice and even violence towards those perceived to threaten the ego ( Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Crocker, Thompson, McGraw, & Ingerman, 1987).”
Background
Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood.
Loeber, R., & Hay, D. (1997) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.371 · Cited by 1,339 · see citing works
The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention
Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115137 · Cited by 1,197 · see citing works
“When people confront petty insults, they sometimes turn to violence and even homicide to reassert an image of personal strength and honor in the minds of others (Cohen et al. 1996; see also Baumeister et al. 1996).”
Background
Contingencies of self-worth.
Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.593 · Cited by 1,614 · see citing works
Low Self-Esteem Is Related to Aggression, Antisocial Behavior, and Delinquency
Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., Robins, R. W., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01535.x · Cited by 1,147 · see citing works
“Thus, our results support the concern (Baumeister et al., 1996) about the dangers of narcissism but do not support the conclusion that low selfesteem is unrelated to externalizing problems.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Self‐Compassion, Self‐Esteem, and Well‐Being
Neff, K. D. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
Self-Evaluation: To Thine Own Self Be Good, To Thine Own Self Be Sure, To Thine Own Self Be True, and To Thine Own Self be Better
Sedikides, C., & Strube, M. (1997) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60018-0 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
Contingencies of Self-Worth in College Students: Theory and Measurement.
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894 · Cited by 1,018 · see citing works
Self-Esteem Within the Work and Organizational Context: A Review of the Organization-Based Self-Esteem Literature
Pierce, J. L., & Gardner, D. G. (2004) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1016/j.jm.2003.10.001 · Cited by 1,005 · see citing works
“This type of high self-esteem scorer is one who has been variously called an egotist ( Baumeister et al., 1996 ), a narcissist (Baumeister, 1999), and one who posses false self-esteem (Locke, 1976).”
BackgroundMethod
CURRENT RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Markovsky, B. (1996) · Cited by 994 · see citing works
Uncertainty–identity theory
Hogg, M. A. (2007) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)39002-8 · Cited by 990 · see citing works
Reactions to Counterstereotypic Behavior: The Role of Backlash in Cultural Stereotype Maintenance.
Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.157 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
Narcissism at the crossroads: Phenotypic description of pathological narcissism across clinical theory, social/personality psychology, and psychiatric diagnosis
Cain, N. M., Pincus, A. L., & Ansell, E. B. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.09.006 · Cited by 876 · see citing works
Self-threat magnifies the self-serving bias: A meta-analytic integration
Campbell, W. K., & Sedikides, C. (1999) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.3.1.23 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis.
Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J., & Buswell, B. N. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.470 · Cited by 1,438 · see citing works
Motivational and emotional aspects of the self
Leary, M. R. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
“For example, efforts to self-enhance may lead people, particularly those with high trait selfesteem, to make risky decisions, treat others shabbily, and react aggressively (Baumeister et al. 1993a, 1996; Heatherton & Vohs 2000; Johnson et al. 1997).”
Background
The Stressor-Emotion Model of Counterproductive Work Behavior.
Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2006) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10893-007 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
The Psychology of Religion
Emmons, R. A., & Paloutzian, R. F. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024 · Cited by 837 · see citing works
“In an extensive review of the self-esteem literature Baumeister (1998, Baumeister et al. 1996) found that when people focus directly on enhancing how they see themselves , an artificially heightened and " dark side " of self-esteem emerges.”
Background
Self-Compassion: Conceptualizations, Correlates, & Interventions
Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025754 · Cited by 835 · see citing works
PATHWAYS FOR POSITIVE IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION AT WORK: FOUR TYPES OF POSITIVE IDENTITY AND THE BUILDING OF SOCIAL RESOURCES.
Dutton, J. E., Roberts, L. M., & Bednar, J. S. (2010) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2010.48463334 · Cited by 831 · see citing works
Psychological universals: what are they and how can we know?
Norenzayan, A., & Heine, S. J. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.763 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
Pride, personality, and the evolutionary foundations of human social status
Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., & Henrich, J. (2010) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.02.004 · Cited by 783 · see citing works
Perfectionism is increasing over time: A meta-analysis of birth cohort differences from 1989 to 2016
Curran, T., & Hill, A. P. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000138 · Cited by 780 · see citing works
Do people's self-views matter? Self-concept and self-esteem in everyday life.
Swann, W. B., Chang-Schneider, C., & Larsen McClarty, K. (2007) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.62.2.84 · Cited by 746 · see citing works
Conceptualizing executive hubris: the role of (hyper‐)core self‐evaluations in strategic decision‐making
Hiller, N., & Hambrick, D. (2005) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.455 · Cited by 736 · see citing works
“Self-esteem, conceptually the most central component of CSE (Judge et al., 1997), is an individual’s global evaluation of self-worth ( Baumeister, Smart, and Boden, 1996 ).”
Background
Getting even or moving on? Power, procedural justice, and types of offense as predictors of revenge, forgiveness, reconciliation, and avoidance in organizations.
Aquino, K. F., Tripp, T. M., & Bies, R. J. (2006) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.653 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
“The finding is also consistent with the argument made by several theorists (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1996; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1982) that low-status persons may experience a greater need to protect themselves against self-invalidating events by retaliating against personal…”
Result
Collective narcissism and its social consequences.
de Zavala, A. G., Cichocka, A., Eidelson, R., & Jayawickreme, N. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016904 · Cited by 704 · see citing works
“…this relationship should be analogous to the mechanism underlying the link between individual narcissism and interpersonal aggressiveness (see Baumeister et al., 1996; Emmons, 1987; Staub, 1989, for suggestions that some form of group-level narcissism should be linked to intergroup…”
Background
Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood.
Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2006) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381 · Cited by 1,024 · see citing works
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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high selfesteem. Psychol Rev 103:5–33
Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996)
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Relation on threatened egoism to violence and aggression : The dark side of high self-esteem
Baumeister, R. F. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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SELF-ESTEEM, AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE: WHAT THE INCONSISTENCIES IN RESULTS TELL US
(2023) · Psychological applications and trends · doi:10.36315/2023inpact135
Threatened egotism as a model for predicting aggression: Where are we now?
Drewitz, K. A. H. (2004) · CommonKnowledge Research Repository (Pacific University Oregon)

Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

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