The DOI matches its Crossref record; 12 of the 12 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.
Abstract
According to the hedonic treadmill model, good and bad events temporarily affect happiness, but people quickly adapt back to hedonic neutrality. The theory, which has gained widespread acceptance in recent years, implies that individual and societal efforts to increase happiness are doomed to failure. The recent empirical work outlined here indicates that 5 important revisions to the treadmill model are needed. First, individuals' set points are not hedonically neutral. Second, people have different set points, which are partly dependent on their temperaments. Third, a single person may have multiple happiness set points: Different components of well-being such as pleasant emotions, unpleasant emotions, and life satisfaction can move in different directions. Fourth, and perhaps most important, well-being set points can change under some conditions. Finally, individuals differ in their adaptation to events, with some individuals changing their set point and others not changing in reaction to some external event. These revisions offer hope for psychologists and policy-makers who aim to decrease human misery and increase happiness.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“This suggests that expectations and reference points are not static, but dynamic (Diener et al., 2006).”
From Measuring Subjective Wellbeing: Recommendations on Measures for use by National Governments (2012) · cites this paper as Diener et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Instead, set points for emotional well‐being can vary, shift over time, and differ across emotional and cognitive dimensions of well‐being.”
From "I don't grieve as much as I used to": A qualitative study on parents of children with rare and undiagnosed conditions navigating grief in the context of uncertainty. (2025) · cites this paper as Diener et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“Recent psychological theories, including revisions to the hedonic treadmill model, suggest that individuals do not always return to a fixed baseline of well‐being after major life events (Diener et al., 2006).”
From "I don't grieve as much as I used to": A qualitative study on parents of children with rare and undiagnosed conditions navigating grief in the context of uncertainty. (2025) · cites this paper as Diener et al., 2006
Citations
Cites
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 · Cited by 11,929
The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803 · Cited by 7,143
Self-citationPositive Psychology Progress: Empirical Validation of Interventions.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.5.410 · Cited by 5,947
Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.84.2.377 · Cited by 3,826 · cited 1×
“Finally, Emmons and McCullough (2003) found that interventions to increase thoughts of gratitude increased levels of positive affect.”
BackgroundPursuing Happiness: The Architecture of Sustainable Change
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111 · Cited by 3,203
Will Money Increase Subjective Well-Being?
Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2002) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1023/a:1014411319119 · Cited by 1,555 · cited 1×
“However, Diener and Biswas-Diener (2002) reviewed studies showing that national levels of wealth strongly predict the subjective well-being of nations, whereas change in wealth is inconsistent in its effects across studies.”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnemployment Alters the Set Point for Life Satisfaction
Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01501002.x · Cited by 1,327 · cited 1×
“from work ( Lucas, Clark, Georgellis, & Diener, 2004 ), and individuals who divorced (Lucas, 2005b) all reported long-lasting changes in life satisfaction after these life events.”
MethodSelf-citationThe relationship between income and subjective well-being: Relative or absolute?
Diener, E., Sandvik, E., Seidlitz, L., & Diener, M. (1993) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/bf01079018 · Cited by 1,175
Self-citationPersonality and susceptibility to positive and negative emotional states.
Larsen, R. J., & Ketelaar, T. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.132 · Cited by 1,062 · cited 2×
“For example, in our study on reaction and adaptation to marriage (Lucas et al., 2003), we relied on laboratory studies of emotional reactivity (e.g., Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991) to predict that the happiest individuals should react most strongly to positive life events.”
MethodEvents and subjective well-being: Only recent events matter.
Suh, E., Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.1091 · Cited by 558
Self-citationA program to increase happiness: Further studies.
Fordyce, M. W. (1983) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.30.4.483 · Cited by 363 · cited 2×
“For instance, in an early set of studies, Fordyce (1977, 1983) demonstrated in seminal studies that a multipronged program successfully raised individuals’ happiness for an extended period of time.”
Personality and coping traits: a joint factor analysis
Ferguson, E. (2001) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1348/135910701169232 · Cited by 98
Research works printed but not linked: 47
- 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.417 · DOI
- 10.1007/s10902-005-5683-8 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.890 · DOI
- 10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.260 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1150 · DOI · Paper page
- Brickman, 1971, Hedonic relativism and planning the good society., 287
- 10.1037/0022-3514.36.8.917 · DOI
- Campbell, 1976, The quality of American life.
- 10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.19 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.1109 · DOI
- 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x · DOI
- Diener, 1999, Personality and subjective well-being., 213
- 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00501001.x · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.851 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.120 · DOI
- 10.1038/sj.sc.3100571 · DOI
- 10.1682/JRRD.2004.08.0100 · DOI
- 10.1023/B:SOCI.0000003801.89195.bc · DOI · Paper page
- 2005, European and World Values Surveys Integrated Data File, 1999-2002, Release I (2nd ICPSR version)
- Feinman. The blind as "ordinary people. 72 231 1978 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-0167.24.6.511 · DOI · Paper page
- Fredrick, 1999, Hedonic adaptation., 302
- 10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.158 · DOI · Paper page
- Gilbert, 2000, Miswanting: Some problems in the forecasting of future affective states., 178
- 10.1038/sj.sc.3101636 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.731 · DOI
- Headey, 1992, Understanding happiness: A theory of subjective well-being.
- 10.1037/h0056721 · DOI
- 10.1037/h0040013 · DOI
- Inglehart, 2000, Genes, culture, democracy, and happiness., 165, 10.7551/mitpress/2242.003.0012 · DOI · Paper page
- Kahneman, Anomalies: Attention and experienced utility., The Journal of Economic Perspectives
- Lucas, 2005a, Happiness can change: A longitudinal study of adaptation to disability. Manuscript submitted for publication
- 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01642.x · DOI · Paper page
- Lucas, 2003, Reexamining adaptation and the set point model of happiness: Reactions to changes in marital status., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 527, 10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.527 · DOI · Paper page
- Lucas, 1996, Discriminant validity of well-being measures., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 616, 10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.616 · DOI
- Myers, 1992, The pursuit of happiness.
- Oishi, 2005, The dynamics of daily events and well-being across cultures: The declining marginal utility of daily events. Manuscript submitted for publication
- 10.1016/0191-8869(84)90027-8 · DOI
- 10.1037/0096-3445.134.1.3 · DOI · Paper page
- Scheier, 2003, Dispositional optimism and recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery: The beneficial effects on physical and psychological well-being., 342
- 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1257 · DOI
- Sheldon, 2004, Achieving sustainable new happiness: Prospects, practices, and prescriptions., 127, 10.1002/9780470939338.ch8 · DOI
- Staudinger, 1996, Self and personality in old and very old age: A sample case of resilience?, Development and Psychopathology, 8, 867, 10.1017/S0954579400007471 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1031 · DOI
- Wilson, 2005, Making sense: A model of affective adaptation. Manuscript submitted for publication
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760701756946 · Cited by 2,396
Self-citationFredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013262 · Cited by 2,365
“Yet more nuanced research (Diener et al., 2006) indicates that adaptation is not necessarily inevitable and may be strongest for negative affect and weaker for positive affect and life satisfaction.”
Subjective well-being and adaptation to life events: A meta-analysis.
Luhmann, M., Hofmann, W., Eid, M., & Lucas, R. E. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025948 · Cited by 1,410
Self-citationA new look at social support: A theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships
Feeney, B. C., & Collins, N. L. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314544222 · Cited by 1,521
“…and thriving in the face of stress (Carver, 1998; Epel et al., 1998), and models of flourishing and positive well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Diener et al., 2006; Ryff & Singer, 1998; Seligman, 2002, 2008), the current perspective highlights two life contexts through which individuals may…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Well‐Being: A Meta‐Analysis
Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015) · Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12051 · Cited by 1,237
Metadata
- Authors
- Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Singapore Management University (SG)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 305-314
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2052283723
- Cited by
- 1,946
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 82 · 2025: 98 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 129 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 155 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 96 · 2016: 89 · 2015: 126 · 2014: 107 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 124
- FWCI
- 75.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Singapore Management University Institutional Knowledge (InK) (Singapore Management University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- hedonic treadmill, adaptation theory, well-being, life satisfaction, emotions, temperament, individual differences, happiness policy, subjective well-being
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Happiness, Humans, Psychological Theory, Quality of Life
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
