A longitudinal study of the relation between language and theory-of-mind development.
Abstract
Fifty-nine 3-year-olds were tested 3 times over a period of 7 months in order to assess the contribution of theory of mind to language development and of language to theory-of-mind development (including the independent contributions of syntax and semantics). Language competence was assessed with a standardized measure of reception and production of syntax and semantics (the Test of Early Language Development). Theory of mind was assessed with false-belief tasks and appearance-reality tasks. Earlier language abilities predicted later theory-of-mind test performance (controlling for earlier theory of mind), but earlier theory of mind did not predict later language test performance (controlling for earlier language). These findings are consistent with the argument that language is fundamental to theory-of-mind development.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Language comprehension, particularly the ability to identify and understand complement syntax and mental (state) verbs in sentences, is crucial for the development of ToM in human childhood.
“Language comprehension, particularly the ability to identify and understand complement syntax and mental (state) verbs in sentences, is crucial for the development of ToM in human childhood (Astington and Jenkins, 1999; De Villiers and Pyers, 2002; De Villiers, 2007; Milligan et al., 2007; De Villiers and De Villiers, 2014).”
From Can "consciousness" be observed from large language model (LLM) internal states? Dissecting LLM representations obtained from Theory of Mind test with Integrated Information Theory and Span Representation analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Astington and Jenkins, 1999
Language comprehension, particularly the identification and understanding of complement syntax and/or mental (state) verbs, is a fundamental mechanism in human childhood ToM development.
“which emphasizes language comprehension particularly the identification and understanding of complement syntax and/or mental (state) verbs - as a fundamental mechanism in human childhood ToM development (Astington and Jenkins, 1999; De Villiers and Pyers, 2002; De Villiers, 2007; Milligan et al., 2007; De Villiers and De Villiers, 2014).”
From Can "consciousness" be observed from large language model (LLM) internal states? Dissecting LLM representations obtained from Theory of Mind test with Integrated Information Theory and Span Representation analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Astington and Jenkins, 1999
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Meta-Analysis of Theory-of-Mind Development: The Truth about False Belief
Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00304 · Cited by 4,476 · see citing works
Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks.
Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x · Cited by 1,980 · see citing works
Milligan, K., Astington, J. W., & Dack, L. A. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01018.x · Cited by 1,248 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Neural Bases of Social Cognition and Story Comprehension
Mar, R. A. (2011) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145406 · Cited by 950 · see citing works
The Relation between Children's and Mothers’ Mental State Language and Theory-of-Mind Understanding
Ruffman, T., Slade, L., & Crowe, E. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00435 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
Maternal mind-mindedness and attachment security as predictors of theory of mind understanding
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Das Gupta, M., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00501 · Cited by 757 · see citing works
Understanding Other Minds: Linking Developmental Psychology and Functional Neuroimaging
Saxe, R., Carey, S., & Kanwisher, N. (2004) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142044 · Cited by 726 · see citing works
Language and theory of mind: a study of deaf children
Schick, B., De Villiers, P., De Villiers, J., & Hoffmeister, R. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01004.x · Cited by 585 · see citing works
What Makes Human Cognition Unique? From Individual to Shared to Collective Intentionality
Tomasello, M., & Rakoczy, H. (2003) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/1468-0017.00217 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
The interface of language and theory of mind
de Villiers, J. (2007) · Lingua · doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2006.11.006 · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Executive function and theory of mind. Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4
Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1447 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Connecting minds and sharing emotions through mimicry: A neurocognitive model of emotional contagion
Prochazkova, E., & Kret, M. E. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.013 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
“Whereas some have ascribed advanced social capacities observed in humans to the development of language (Astington and Baird, 2005; Astington and Jenkins, 1999), other authors propose that social cognition begins with earlier and more basic and nonverbal characteristics that precede language…”
Signposts to development: theory of mind in deaf children
Woolfe, T., Want, S. C., & Siegal, M. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00437 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Fedorenko, E., & Varley, R. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13046 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Theory of mind and neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood
KORKMAZ, B. (2011) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/pdr.0b013e318212c177 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Olderbak, S., Wilhelm, O., Olaru, G., Geiger, M., Brenneman, M. W., & Roberts, R. D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01503 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Infant attention to intentional action predicts preschool theory of mind.
Wellman, H. M., Lopez-Duran, S., LaBounty, J., & Hamilton, B. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.618 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Infant social attention predicts preschool social cognition
Wellman, H. M., Phillips, A. T., Dunphy‐Lelii, S., & LaLonde, N. (2004) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00347.x · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Individual differences in children’s understanding of emotion: The roles of attachment and language
Rosnay, M. D., & Harris, P. L. (2002) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616730210123139 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Intact first- and second-order false belief reasoning in a patient with severely impaired grammar
Apperly, I. A., Samson, D., Carroll, N., Hussain, S., & Humphreys, G. (2006) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910601038693 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Verbal interference paradigms: a systematic review investigating the role of language in cognition
Nedergaard, J. S. K., Wallentin, M., & Lupyan, G. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02144-7 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
School readiness amongst urban Canadian families: risk profiles and family mediation.
Browne, D. T., Wade, M., Prime, H., & Jenkins, J. M. (2018) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000202 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationA Systematic Review of the Evidence for Impaired Cognitive Theory of Mind in Maltreated Children
Benarous, X., Guilé, J.-M., Consoli, A., & Cohen, D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00108 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Prenatal maternal stress shapes children’s theory of mind: the QF2011 Queensland Flood Study
Simcock, G., Kildea, S., Elgbeili, G., Laplante, D. P., Cobham, V., & King, S. (2017) · Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease · doi:10.1017/s2040174417000186 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Li, J. (2025) · Natural Language Processing Journal · doi:10.1016/j.nlp.2025.100163 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Previous studies have highlighted the influence of linguistic features on ToM tests (Astington and Jenkins, 1999; De Villiers and Pyers, 2002; De Villiers, 2007; Milligan et al., 2007; De Villiers and De Villiers, 2014).”
- Authors
- Astington, J. W., & Jenkins, J. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Toronto (CA)
- ORCID
- Jenkins, Jennifer M.
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1311-1320
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- OpenAlex
- W4233077375
- Cited by
- 966
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 41
- FWCI
- 24.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Keywords
- language development, theory of mind, longitudinal development
- MeSH terms
- Child Language, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Language Development, Language Tests, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Predictive Value of Tests, Psychological Theory, Psychometrics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
