Longitudinal models of developmental dynamics between reading and cognition from childhood to adolescence.
Abstract
The authors applied linear dynamic models to longitudinal data to examine the dynamics of reading and cognition from 1st to 12th grade. They used longitudinal data (N=445) from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study (S. E. Shaywitz, B. A. Shaywitz, J. M. Fletcher, & M. D. Escobar, 1990) to map the dynamic interrelations of various scales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children--Revised (i.e., Full, Performance, and Verbal) and specific markers of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery--Revised reading cluster (i.e., Letter-Word ID, Decoding, and Comprehension). The results of these analyses indicate that (a) there is a positive dynamic relation between reading and cognition across the selected age range; (b) this dynamic relation is symbiotic, with positive influences in both directions; (c) the influence from cognition to reading is stronger when considering the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children Performance--Revised Performance scale and weaker with the Verbal scale; (d) when examining the different Reading subtests, the influences from cognition are more apparent for Letter-Word ID and Comprehension and are less perceptible for Decoding; and (e) the dynamics of reading and cognition appear to be of stronger magnitude during 1st to 3rd grade, less strong during 4th to 8th grade, and weaker from 9th to 12th grade.
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Increases in vocabulary, language ability, and competence with numbers, letters, and words facilitate executive function abilities.
“increases in vocabulary, language ability, and competence with numbers, letters, and words will facilitate executive function abilities (Ferrer et al. 2007, Welsh et al. 2010).”
From School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach (2015) · cites this paper as Ferrer et al. 2007
Executive function abilities facilitate the acquisition of knowledge.
“Just as executive function abilities will facilitate the acquisition of knowledge”
From School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach (2015) · cites this paper as Ferrer et al. 2007
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Whole-brain white matter organization, intelligence, and educational attainmentPreprint
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“…strongly with reading development and impairment (Stanovich, 1986; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Berninger et al., 2001; Ferrer and McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007, 2010), although the exact nature of this relationship still remains unclear (Newman et al., 1991; Rispens et al., 1991; Jiménez…”
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“Additional phases would increase the power and gain statistical precision and facilitate the investigation on discontinuities in dynamics (Ferrer et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodReciprocal relationships between nonword repetition and vocabulary during the preschool years.
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“…nonword repetition ability was stronger than vice versa, we compared the model in Figure 3 with three alternative models in which one or both cross-effects (from vocabulary to nonword repetition and vice versa) were removed (see Ferrer et al., 2007, Ferrer & McArdle, 2004 for similar procedures).”
BackgroundMethodDefining the relationship between fine motor visual-spatial integration and reading and spelling
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“, 2014), such as attention (Conners, 2009), IQ (Ferrer et al., 2007), inhibitory control (Cartwright, 2012) and working memory (Preßler et al.”
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“Notably, it has been demonstrated that the influence of cognition on reading in children is more apparent for reading comprehension and word recognition than for decoding ( Ferrer et al., 2007 ), suggesting that domain general networks might contribute differently to different subskills.”
Vocabulary, morphology, and reading comprehension
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“Previous research has validated the use of these scales with adolescent populations (e.g., Ferrer et al., 2007).”
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“This result is consistent with a previous longitudinal study of general cognitive abilities and reading in typical children (Ferrer et al., 2007).”
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Growth in Reading Comprehension and Verbal Ability From Grades 1 Through 9
Holahan, J., Ferrer, E., Shaywitz, B., Rock, D., Kirsch, I., Yamamoto, K., Michaels, R., Marchione, K., & Shaywitz, S. (2018) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916680984 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…followed longitudinally from school entry into early adulthood with the purpose of studying the development of reading, learning, and attention (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione, & Shaywitz, 2010; Ferrer et al., 2015; B. Shaywitz et al., 1995; S. E. Shaywitz et al.,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe relationship between learning mathematics and general cognitive ability in primary school
Cowan, R., Hurry, J., & Midouhas, E. (2018) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12200 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Fluid Cognitive Abilities and General Intelligence
Blair, C. B. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd001008 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Wreading on Online Literature Platforms
Kraxenberger, M., & Lauer, G. (2022) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/07410883221092730 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Independent of users’ creative or monetary ambitions, previous research has highlighted the importance of social connectedness among users: They are committed to supporting each other’s communication (Ferrer et al., 2007).”
BackgroundEffects of Extreme Prematurity and Kindergarten Neuropsychological Skills on Early Academic Progress
Taylor, H., Klein, N. K., Espy, K., Schluchter, M., Minich, N., Stilp, R., & Hack, M. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000434 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Findings from studies of community samples suggest that young children who score higher on tests of executive function and attention, visual-motor ability, nonverbal reasoning, phonological awareness, and language make more rapid academic progress and have higher levels of later achievement (Cameron et al., 2012; Ferr…”
InfluentialA Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis of Psychometric Intelligence and Achievement in Reading and Math
Watkins, M. W., & Styck, K. M. (2017) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence5030031 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“[6] applied linear dynamic models to a longitudinal dataset containing 445 children who were annually assessed from first through twelfth grades.”
MethodEvaluating Willingness to Pay as a Measure of the Impact of Dyslexia in Adults
Herrera-Araujo, D., Shaywitz, B., Holahan, J., Marchione, K., Michaels, R., Shaywitz, S., & Hammitt, J. (2017) · Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis · doi:10.1017/bca.2017.3 · Cited by 12
“1 Data Data come from participants in the Connecticut Longitudinal Study (Shaywitz et al. 1990; Shaywitz et al. 1992; Shaywitz et al. 1999; Ferrer et al. 1999; Ferrer et al. 2007; Ferrer et al. 2015), a longitudinal panel of individuals focusing on dyslexia.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPartanen, E., Kivimäki, R., Huotilainen, M., Ylinen, S., & Tervaniemi, M. H. (2022) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108189 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Beatty, C., & Egan, S. M. (2020) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0420 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“8 This highlights the period relating to early childhood as particularly important for the development of reasoning ability.”
Multivariate Veränderungsmodelle für Schulnoten und Schülerleistungen in Deutsch und Mathematik
Hülür, G., Wilhelm, O., & Robitzsch, A. (2011) · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000051 · Cited by 10
Weed, K., Keogh, D., Borkowski, J., Whitman, T., & Noria, C. W. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.10.006 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…on variable-centered approaches to predict achievement, often assessing the mediating and moderating roles of child and family related variables with longitudinal samples (Ferrer et al., 2007; McClelland et al., 2007; McClelland, Sektnan, & Morrison, 2009; Razza, Martin, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009).”
BackgroundCáncer, P. F., & Estrada, E. (2023) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2022.2161906 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…to represent trajectories that are typical of the development of cognitive abilities from childhood to early adulthood (e.g., Kail & Ferrer, 2007; Schmitt et al., 2017; van Der Maas et al., 2006), and were based on previous empirical studies (Ferrer et al., 2007, 2010; Shaywitz et al., 1990).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEstrada, E., Sbarra, D. A., & Ferrer, E. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316995808.033 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of fluid reasoning in word recognition
Guerin, J. M., Sylvia, A. M., Yolton, K., & Mano, Q. (2020) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12287 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Suggate, S., Karle, V. L., Kipfelsberger, T., & Stoeger, H. (2025) · Educational Research and Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100748 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Lefèvre, E., Cavalli, E., Colé, P., Law, J. M., & Sprenger-Charolles, L. (2023) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-022-00277-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Estrada, E., Hamagami, F., & Ferrer, E. (2019) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2019.1647822 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“For a general description of LCS models, their technical underpinnings, and potential uses, we refer to available literature (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ferrer & McArdle, 2004, 2010; McArdle, 2001, 2009; McArdle & Hamagami, 2001).”
MethodSelf-citationKeller, P. S., & El‐Sheikh, M. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01225.x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…a relatively new statistical model, it has been used successfully in various fields, including clinical psychology (Sbarra & Allen, 2009), gerontology (Pinquart & Schindler, 2007), learning and intelligence research (Ferrer et al., 2007; McArdle et al., 2000), and neuroscience (Raz et al., 2005).”
MethodOzernov-Palchik, O., Sideridis, G., Norton, E., Beach, S., Wolf, M., Gabrieli, J., & Gaab, N. (2022) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102166 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Family History Is Not Useful in Screening Children for Dyslexia
Ferrer, E., Shaywitz, B., Holahan, J., & Shaywitz, S. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/s40817-021-00110-0 · Cited by 6
Self-citationKovalčíková, I. (2015) · Journal of Pedagogy / Pedagogický casopis · doi:10.1515/jped-2015-0001 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The ability to solve such analogy problems, a measure of fluid reasoning, has been shown to be a good predictor of academic achievement in both reading (Ferrer et al., 2007; Stanovich, Cunningham, & Feeman, 1984) and maths (Primi, Ferrão, & Almeida, 2010; Taub, Floyd, Keith, & McGrew, 2008).”
BackgroundLan, M., Tao, S.-S., Pan, Q., Liang, Q.-R., Tan, C.-Y., & Law, N. W. Y. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2614086 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Unique longitudinal contributions of sulcal interruptions to reading acquisition in childrenPreprint
Bouhali, F., Dubois, J., Hoeft, F., & Weiner, K. S. (2024) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.07.30.605574 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…however, future studies can integrate these two approaches by building tools to precisely measure gyral gaps in an automated fashion, which would result in both a large N, as well as precisely identified gyral gaps, in each individual using deep learning (Lyu et al., 2021; Rivière et al., 2022).”
InfluentialCáncer, P. F., Estrada, E., & Ferrer, E. (2023) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2022.2163647 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“These parameters are reported in Table 1 and were based on previous empirical studies (Ferrer et al., 2007, 2010; Shaywitz et al., 1990).”
Self-citationMarks, R. A., Norton, R. T., Mesite, L. M., Fox, A. B., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-022-10361-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rappaport, B. I., Jackson, J. J., Whalen, D. J., Pagliaccio, D., Luby, J. L., & Barch, D. M. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702620965936 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“On the basis of prior studies using BLCSMs (Ferrer et al., 2007; Kievit et al., 2018; McArdle & Grimm, 2010), the selffeedback parameters (β) for each construct were fixed to be equal across assessment waves.”
BackgroundMethodResultTordön, R., Bladh, M., Sydsjö, G., & Svedin, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00718 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Other studies suggest reading skills contribute to the growth of general cognitive skills and vice versa (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ritchie et al., 2015).”
BackgroundIdentifying atypical change at the individual level from childhood to adolescence
Estrada, E., Ferrer, E., Shaywitz, B., Holahan, J., & Shaywitz, S. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000583 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…more information on LCS models and their application to developmental change, see McArdle (2001); McArdle and Hamagami (2001), E. Ferrer and McArdle (2004), E. Ferrer et al. (2007), E. Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione, and Shaywitz (2010), E. Ferrer and McArdle (2010), and Kievit et al. (2017).”
Self-citationLongitudinal Models for Studying Multivariate Changes and Dynamics
Ferrer, E., & Gonzales, J. E. (2014) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000365581 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationRitter, A., & Ilakkuvan, V. (2019) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2019.05.024 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Blujus, J. K., Papandonatos, G. D., Buka, S. L., Rogers, M. L., Donatelli, J.-A. L., Festa, E. K., & Heindel, W. C. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118441 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Executive abilities are particularly influenced by schooling, as both direct academic training (e.g., mathematics) (Ferrer et al., 2007) and exposure to rich social environments (e.g., peer-to-peer or student-to-teacher interactions (Holmes et al., 2016; Koşkulu-Sancar et al., 2023) aid in the…”
- Authors
- Ferrer, E., McArdle, J. J., Shaywitz, B. A., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K., & Shaywitz, S. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1460-1473
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- OpenAlex
- W1988877524
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 11.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (BCS-05-27766)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- reading development, cognitive development, dynamic linear models, letter-word identification, decoding, reading comprehension, performance IQ, verbal IQ, childhood to adolescence
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aging, Child, Child Development, Cognition, Connecticut, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Models, Psychological, Reading, Speech, Models, Statistical, Cohort Studies
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