The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus
Abstract
Brain imaging studies reliably localize a region of visual cortex that is especially responsive to visual words. This brain specialization is essential to rapid reading ability because it enhances perception of words by becoming specifically tuned to recurring properties of a writing system. The origin of this specialization poses a challenge for evolutionary accounts involving innate mechanisms for functional brain organization. We propose an alternative account, based on studies of other forms of visual expertise (i.e. bird and car experts) that lead to functional reorganization. We argue that the interplay between the unique demands of word reading and the structural constraints of the visual system lead to the emergence of the Visual Word Form Area.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper reviews evidence that a left fusiform region, the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), is reliably activated by visual words and shows abstract, prelexical tuning to orthographic structure. It proposes that this specialization arises through reading-driven perceptual expertise rather than an innate word-recognition module.
Key findings
- The VWFA localizes to the left occipitotemporal sulcus bordering the fusiform gyrus, with a group peak at approximately x = −43, y = −54, z = −12 mm; this peak is found in over 90% of individual subject scans, with a standard deviation of <5 mm.
- The region responds to visual words and pseudowords more than control stimuli, shows case/font/size and left–right visual-field invariance, is activated even without awareness, and is sensitive to orthographic regularity but generally not to lexical frequency or real-versus-pseudoword contrasts.
- The authors argue the VWFA is a case of perceptual expertise: writing is only ~5400 years old, too recent for dedicated evolutionary selection, and VWFA activity correlates with grapheme–phoneme decoding ability even when age is controlled.
- Neuropsychological evidence links pure alexia and left-visual-field word-reading deficits to damage or disconnection around the VWFA; adults with developmental dyslexia show reduced VWFA activation to words and pseudowords.
Methods
- Review and synthesis of prior neuroimaging studies (fMRI, PET, ERP, MEG, intracranial recordings), neuropsychological lesion evidence, developmental studies, and visual-expertise research; no new empirical data are presented.
- Localization claims draw on reviews of over 25 group experiments; developmental evidence includes children aged 7–18 years and behavioral/ERP studies in first-graders and older children.
- Main analysis is qualitative convergence across experimental contrasts and populations, leading to a proposed functional-anatomical model of visual word reading.
Limitations
- The paper does not include a formal limitations section. It states caveats: the term VWFA need not imply sole dedication to word recognition, object and face recognition can also activate this region, other regions can be modulated by visual word forms, and projections from the VWFA to lexical, semantic, and phonological systems are less clearly defined.
- Evident from the text: this is a review rather than a new experiment, some cited findings are “in press,” and the functional-anatomical model is described as tentative.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 91 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Interpretationreasoning§ The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus · p. 1
The origin of this specialization poses a challenge for evolutionary accounts involving innate mechanisms for functional brain organization.
“The origin of this specialization poses a challenge for evolutionary accounts involving innate mechanisms for functional brain organization.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Writing was invented about 5400 years ago.
- Rests on an assumption: 5400 years is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized module for visual word recognition.
- Interpretationreasoning§ The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus · p. 1
The interplay between the unique demands of word reading and the structural constraints of the visual system lead to the emergence of the Visual Word Form Area.
“We argue that the interplay between the unique demands of word reading and the structural constraints of the visual system lead to the emergence of the Visual Word Form Area.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
The perceptual mechanisms that support word recognition rest on a critical process that groups the letters of a word together into an integrated perceptual unit (a 'visual word form').
“Several lines of cognitive evidence indicate that the perceptual mechanisms that support word recognition rest on a critical process that groups the letters of a word together into an integrated perceptual unit (i.e. a 'visual word form').”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [1] Rayner, 1989
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- cites [2] Nazir, 1998, Letter legibility and visual word recognition, Mem. Cogn. source
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- cites [3] Reicher, 1969, Perceptual recognition as a function of meaninfulness of stimulus material, J. Exp. Psychol. source
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- Premisecitation§ The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus · p. 1
Brain imaging studies reliably localize a region of visual cortex that is especially responsive to visual words.
“Brain imaging studies reliably localize a region of visual cortex that is especially responsive to visual words.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
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- cites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
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- cites [10] Polk, 2002, Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area, J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. source
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- cites [11] Dehaene, 2002, The visual word form area: a prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus, Neuroreport source
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- Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
Within less than 250 ms of viewing a written word, the visual system extracts the information needed to identify its linguistic significance, despite wide variations in print, script, font, size and retinal position.
“Within less than 250 ms of viewing a written word, the visual system extracts the information needed to identify its linguistic significance, despite wide variations in print, script, font, size and retinal position.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Rayner, 1989
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- Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
Literate adults possess a special form of visual expertise that allows their visual system to process words efficiently.
“Literate adults possess a special form of visual expertise that allows their visual system to process words efficiently.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Rayner, 1989
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- Interpretationreasoning§ The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus · p. 1
This brain specialization is essential to rapid reading ability because it enhances perception of words by becoming specifically tuned to recurring properties of a writing system.
“This brain specialization is essential to rapid reading ability because it enhances perception of words by becoming specifically tuned to recurring properties of a writing system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Stimulus-specific tuning · p. 3
The VWFA demonstrates a form of tuning to learned letter stimuli, which produce greater activity than well-controlled pseudoletters.
“The response properties of the VWFA demonstrate a form of tuning to learned letter stimuli, which produce greater activity than well-controlled pseudoletters, that can be measured by blocks of PET data [19], as well by the first 200 ms of activity in MEG and intracranial electrical recordings [16].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
This region of the visual system must contain a population of neurons that, as an ensemble, is tuned to invariant stimulus properties and structural regularities characteristic of written words.
“Nevertheless, we argue that this region of the visual system must contain a population of neurons that, as an ensemble, is tuned to invariant stimulus properties and structural regularities characteristic of written words.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Localization in time · p. 2
ERPs recorded over left posterior visual regions within 150-200 ms demonstrate sensitivity to words relative to other stimuli that control for visual features.
“Consistent with the rapid time course of visual word recognition, event-related potentials (ERPs) recorded over left posterior visual regions within 150-200 ms demonstrate sensitivity to words relative to other stimuli that control for visual features [12,13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [12] Bentin, 1999, ERP manifestations of processing printed words at different psycholinguistic levels: time course and scalp distribution, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- cites [13] McCandliss, 1997, Brain plasticity in learning visual words, Cogn. Psychol. source
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- Premisecitation§ Invariance across visual features · p. 3
The VWFA shows equally robust fMRI responses when words (versus control stimuli) are presented in a familiar format and in a perceptually novel mixed-case format.
“For example, the VWFA shows equally robust fMRI responses when words (versus control stimuli) are presented in a familiar format (e.g. 'table') and in a perceptually novel mixed-case format (e.g. 'tAbLe') [10].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] Polk, 2002, Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area, J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. source
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- Interpretationcitation§ Modality specificity · p. 2
The VWFA corresponds to a specific visual process, rather than a more linguistic multimodal one.
“We argue that the VWFA corresponds to a specific visual process, rather than a more linguistic multimodal one.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
A large body of converging evidence from neuroimaging studies now exists to link the psychological process of abstract visual word form perception with a particular cortical region within the left fusiform gyrus.
“We propose that a large body of converging evidence from neuroimaging studies now exists to link the psychological process of abstract visual word form perception with a particular cortical region within the left fusiform gyrus.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Sensitivity to orthographic regularity · p. 3
The VWFA demonstrates a sublexical sensitivity to the orthographic regularities by which letters form words.
“However, it demonstrates a sublexical sensitivity to the orthographic regularities by which letters form words.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
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- cites [13] McCandliss, 1997, Brain plasticity in learning visual words, Cogn. Psychol. source
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- cites [26] Ziegler, 1997, Word, pseudoword and nonword processing: a multitask comparison using event-related-potentials, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation§ Modality specificity · p. 2
Nearby regions active in word tasks that involve nonvisual modalities are typically significantly more anterior than the VWFA.
“Although nearby regions are active in word tasks that involve nonvisual modalities [17], such regions are typically significantly more anterior than the VWFA [8].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation§ Activation without awareness · p. 2
The VWFA produces measurable responses to words, even under conditions that prevent awareness of the visual presentation of a word.
“The VWFA produces measurable responses to words, even under conditions that prevent awareness of the visual presentation of a word [18] (Fig. 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [18] Dehaene, 2001, Cerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming, Nat. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation§ Sensitivity to orthographic regularity · p. 3
The VWFA is generally insensitive to factors that influence lexical access, such as contrasts between high- and low-frequency words, or between real and pseudowords.
“TheVWFAisgenerallyinsensitive to factors that influence lexical access, such as contrasts between high- and lowfrequency words [24], or between real and pseudowords, as revealed by event-related fMRI analyses [11,23,25].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [24] Fiebach, 2002, fMRI evidence for dual routes to the mental lexicon in visual word recognition, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- cites [11] Dehaene, 2002, The visual word form area: a prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus, Neuroreport source
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- cites [23] Dehaene, S. et al. (2003) Letter binding and invariant recognition of masked words: behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Psychol. Sci. (in press). source
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- cites [25] Beauregard, 1997, The neural substrate for concrete, abstract, and emotional word lexica: a positron emission tomography study, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation§ Stimulus-specific tuning · p. 3
Individual subjects' accuracy at speeded letter recognition systematically correlates with the level of activation in the VWFA.
“Furthermore, individual subjects' accuracy at speeded letter recognition systematically correlates with the level of activation in the VWFA [20].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] Garrett, 2000, Cortical activity related to accuracy of letter recognition, Neuroimage source
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- Premisecitation§ Spatial localization · p. 2
Perception of visual words and pseudowords reliably activates the left fusiform gyrus to a greater degree than other highly similar control stimuli.
“Perception of visual words and pseudowords reliably activates the left fusiform gyrus to a greater degree than other highly similar control stimuli.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] Fiez, 1998, Neuroimaging studies of word reading, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. source
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- cites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
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- cites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
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- Premisecitation§ Spatial localization · p. 2
The peak of the visual word form area is located at approximately x = -43, y = -54, z = -12 (mm, to the left, posterior, and below the anterior commissure).
“Based on reviews of over 25 group experiments, the peak of the visual word form area is located at approximately x ¼ 2 43, y ¼ 2 54, z ¼ 2 12 (mm, to the left, posterior, and below the anterior commissure, respectively) [8].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
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- Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
A single target letter is identified more efficiently in the context of a well-structured word than within a randomly structured letter string or a letter in isolation (word superiority effect).
“Furthermore, the 'word superiority effect' demonstrates that a single target letter is identified more efficiently in the context of a well-structured word than within a randomly structured letter string or a letter in isolation [3].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Reicher, 1969, Perceptual recognition as a function of meaninfulness of stimulus material, J. Exp. Psychol. source
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- Premisecitation§ Spatial invariance · p. 3
fMRI responses to words versus control stimuli in the VWFA are equivalent across both visual fields.
“In the VWFA, however, fMRI responses to words versus control stimuli are equivalent across both visual fields [9] (Fig. 1b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
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- Premisecitation§ Sensitivity to orthographic regularity · p. 3
Novel, but well-structured letter strings (pseudowords), produce more robust fMRI responses than novel but poorly structured letter strings.
“Novel, but well-structured letter strings (i.e. pseudowords), produce more robust fMRI responses than novel but poorly structured letter strings [8].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
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- Premisecitation§ Spatial invariance · p. 3
This response property has been associated with a left-lateralized ERP component recorded over left inferior temporal cortex, ~250 ms after a word is presented to the left or right visual field.
“This response property has been associated with a leftlateralized ERP component recorded over left inferior temporal cortex , 250 ms after a word is presented to the left or right visual field [9,21].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
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- cites [21] Posner, 1999, Brain circuitry during reading
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- Premisecitation§ Sensitivity to orthographic regularity · p. 3
Similar phenomena have been demonstrated within the first 200 ms of stimulus processing within ERP and MEG responses associated with the left ventrotemporal region.
“Similar phenomena have been demonstrated within the first 200 ms of stimulus processing within ERP and MEG responses associated with the left ventrotemporal region [13,26,27].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [13] McCandliss, 1997, Brain plasticity in learning visual words, Cogn. Psychol. source
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- cites [26] Ziegler, 1997, Word, pseudoword and nonword processing: a multitask comparison using event-related-potentials, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
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- cites [27] Breier, 1998, Relative timing of neuronal activity in distinct temporal lobe areas during a recognition memory task for words, J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. source
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- Premisecitation§ Localization in time · p. 2
MEG and intracranial electrical recordings provide increasingly specific localization information that is consistent with the fMRI findings for the VWFA.
“Similar results have also been found with magneto-encephalography (MEG) [14,15] and intracranial electrical recordings [16] that provide increasingly specific localization information that is consistent with the fMRI findings for the VWFA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [14] Helenius, 1999, Dissociation of normal feature analysis and deficient processing of letter-strings in dyslexic adults, Cereb. Cortex source
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- cites [15] Tarkiainen, 2002, Dynamics of visual feature analysis and object-level processing in face versus letter-string perception, Brain source
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- cites [16] Nobre, 1994, Word recognition in the human inferior temporal lobe, Nature source
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- Premisecitation§ Invariance across visual features · p. 3
When a word is repeated immediately, fMRI and N200 ERP responses associated with the VWFA demonstrate sensitivity to word repetition that is independent of changes in letter case.
“Furthermore, when a word is repeated immediately, fMRI and N200 ERP responses associated with the VWFA demonstrate sensitivity to word repetition that is independent of changes in letter case [18,21].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [18] Dehaene, 2001, Cerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming, Nat. Neurosci. source
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- cites [21] Posner, 1999, Brain circuitry during reading
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Invariance across visual features · p. 3
The abstract processes of the VWFA go beyond size and shape normalization and have become attuned to the specific demands of reading.
“This indicates that the abstract processes of the VWFA go beyond size and shape normalization and have become attuned to the specific demands of reading.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Modality specificity · p. 2
Passive presentation of spoken words elicits no response in the VWFA.
“Passive presentation of spoken words elicits no response in this region [11].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Dehaene, 2002, The visual word form area: a prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus, Neuroreport source
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- Premisecitation§ Invariance across visual features · p. 3
Case invariance holds even for upper and lowercase letters that share no visual similarity but are related only by arbitrary cultural convention.
“Case invariance holds even for upper and lowercase letters that share no visual similarity but are related only by arbitrary cultural convention (e.g. a and A, g and G) [22,23].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [22] McCandliss, 2000, Habituating cognitive codes for individual words within the visual word form area: an event related fMRI study, J. Cogn. Neurosci. Suppl.
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- cites [23] Dehaene, S. et al. (2003) Letter binding and invariant recognition of masked words: behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Psychol. Sci. (in press). source
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1
A level of perceptual processing exists that extracts invariant information about the structure of visual words and integrates this information into a perceptual object.
“Together, these effects support the existence of a level of perceptual processing that extracts invariant information about the structure of visual words and integrates this information into a perceptual object.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
The IT cortex is composed of a mosaic of neuronal patches that respond to elementary shapes, whose combination can encode arbitrary objects.
“Furthermore, combined optical imaging and single-cell recordings suggest that the IT cortex is composed of a mosaic of neuronal patches that respond to elementary shapes, whose combination can encode arbitrary objects [39,42].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [39] Tanaka, 2003, Columns for complex visual object features in inferotemporal cortex: clustering of cells with similar but slightly different stimulus selectivities, Cereb. Cortex source
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- cites [42] Tsunoda, 2001, Complex objects are represented in macaque inferotemporal cortex by the combination of feature columns, Nat. Neurosci. source
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- Premisecitation§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 3
The emergence of perceptual expertise in several visual domains (i.e. bird experts, car experts) has been linked to enhanced perception of category members via an increased ability to integrate information across the entire stimulus.
“The emergence of perceptual expertise in several visual domains (i.e. bird experts, car experts) has been linked to enhanced perception of category members via an increased ability to integrate information across the entire stimulus [31].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [31] Rossion, 2000, The N170 occipito-temporal component is delayed and enhanced to inverted faces but not to inverted objects: an electrophysiological account of face-specific processes in the human brain, Neuroreport source
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- Interpretationcitation§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5
Successful mastery of grapheme-phoneme conversion (i.e. decoding) is a critical precursor to the development of the adult-like response properties of the VWFA.
“Such findings suggest that successful mastery of graphemephonemeconversion (i.e. decoding) is a critical precursor to the development of the adult-like response properties of the VWFA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [36] Shaywitz, 2002, Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia, Biol. Psychiatry source
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- cites [37] Share, 1999, Phonological recoding and orthographic learning: a direct test of the self-teaching hypothesis, J. Exp. Child Psychol. source
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- Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
Two gradients of selectivity that cut across all areas of the ventral visual system have been identified.
“Two gradients of selectivity that cut across all areas of the ventral visual system have been identified [43].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [43] Malach, 2002, The topography of high-order human object areas, Trends Cogn. Sci. source
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- Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
IT neurons exhibit learning phenomena, even for essentially arbitrary figures.
“They also exhibit learning phenomena, even for essentially arbitrary figures [41].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] Logothetis, 2000, Object recognition: holistic representations in the monkey brain, Spat. Vis. source
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- Interpretationcitation§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5
The progressive development of the VWFA seems closely tied to the progression of skill, rather than being merely a matter of maturation.
“The progressive development of the VWFA seems closely tied to the progression of skill, rather than being merely a matter of maturation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
The VWFA occupies a reproducible location on these gradients because this region best meets dual requirements of fine foveal discrimination and invariant recognition of letter- and word-size units.
“Similarly, we propose that the VWFA occupies a reproducible location on these gradients because this region best meets dual requirements of fine foveal discriminationandinvariantrecognitionofletter-andwordsize units.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Conclusions and future directions · p. 5
Convergent evidence links the psychological effects that are critical to expert-level visual word form perception with the response properties of a particular cortical region that can be systematically identified and probed.
“We point out the presence of convergent evidence that links the psychological effects that are critical to expert-level visual word form perception with the response properties of a particular cortical region that can be systematically identified and probed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
Regions that show particular responsivity to objects, faces, or houses occupy reproducible locations within those gradients, corresponding to the differential requirements that they put on peripheral or foveal vision.
“Strikingly, the regions that show particular responsivity to objects, faces, or houses occupy reproducible locations within those gradients, corresponding to the differential requirements that they put on peripheral or foveal vision [43].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [43] Malach, 2002, The topography of high-order human object areas, Trends Cogn. Sci. source
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- Premisecitation§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 3
These processing benefits are linked to functional reorganizations in the response properties of a region of the right fusiform gyrus.
“These processing benefits are linked to functional reorganizations in the response properties of a region of the right fusiform gyrus [32], which are also associated with changes in the response properties of ERPs recorded within the first 200 ms of processing stimuli [33].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] Gauthier, 2000, Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition, Nat. Neurosci. source
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- Interpretationreasoning§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
These shapes must have been selected, in the course of phylogenetic and/or ontogenetic evolution, for their ability to provide a combinatorial code capable of representing many different objects.
“These shapes must have been selected, in the course of phylogenetic and/or ontogenetic evolution, for their ability to provide a combinatorial code capable of representing many different objects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5
Training effects in reading-impaired children have recently been linked to changes in fMRI activation, including posterior occipitotemporal regions in the vicinity of the VWFA, as children attempt to link letters to sounds.
“Furthermore, training effects in reading-impaired children have recently been linked to changes in fMRI activation, including posterior occipitotemporal regions in the vicinity of the VWFA [38], as children attempt to link letters to sounds.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [38] Temple, 2003, Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioral remediation: evidence from functional fMRI, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. source
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- Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
Some of those primitive shapes closely resemble printed or handwritten characters, such as T junctions, a figure-of-eight, a star, and so forth.
“Remarkably, some of those primitive shapes closely resemble printed or handwritten characters, such as T junctions, a figure-of-eight, a star, and so forth [39].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [39] Tanaka, 2003, Columns for complex visual object features in inferotemporal cortex: clustering of cells with similar but slightly different stimulus selectivities, Cereb. Cortex source
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- Interpretationreasoning§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 4
Over the course of development, individual differences in VWFA activity should be more closely tied to expertise than to maturation.
“It also predicts that, over the course of development, individual differences in VWFA activity should be more closely tied to expertise than to maturation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Origins of the VWFA specialization · p. 3
The response properties of the VWFA are largely consistent with a proposed level of perceptual processing in word recognition that constructs an abstract representation of letters sequenced into word forms.
“Taken together, the response properties of the VWFA are largely consistent with a proposed level of perceptual processing in word recognition that constructs an abstract representation of letters sequenced into word forms [28].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] Carr, 1995, The impact of learning to read on the functional anatomy of language processing
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- Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
Research with dyslexic adults indicates that, among other areas, the VWFA fails to increase its activity in response to word forms.
“Research with dyslexic adults indicates that, among other areas, the VWFA fails to increase its activity in response to word forms [44,45] (Box 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
Over the course of years of extensive experience in extracting invariant information from visual word stimuli, perceptual processes are progressively reorganized, but only in those who become skilled readers.
“Over the course of years of extensive experience in extracting invariant information from visual word stimuli, perceptual processes are progressively reorganized, but only in those who become skilled readers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Box 1. Neuropsychological evidence · p. 3
The locus of damage to the visual system leading to pure alexia coincides with the VWFA.
“The locus of damage to the visual system leading to PA coincides with the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA) (see Fig. I).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [47] Binder, 1992, The topography of callosal reading pathways. a case-control analysis, Brain source
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- Premisecitation§ Box 1. Neuropsychological evidence · p. 3
Pure alexia results in an impaired ability to read words in a rapid, parallel fashion.
“Pure alexia (PA; also known as 'word form dyslexia' or 'letter-byletter reading') results in an impaired ability to read words in a rapid, parallel fashion [46,47].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 4
The VWFA constitutes a special case of perceptual expertise, in which extensive visual experience with a class of stimuli drives enhancement of perceptual mechanisms and changes in the supporting functional architecture in the left fusiform gyrus.
“We propose here that the VWFA constitutes a special case of perceptual expertise, in which extensive visual experience with a class of stimuli drives enhancement of perceptual mechanisms and changes in the supporting functional architecture in the left fusiform gyrus (see discussion on laterality issues below).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5
Activation levels of the VWFA and other nearby regions were positively correlated with standardized scores in grapheme-phoneme decoding ability, even when the effects of age were taken into account.
“Activation levels of the VWFA and other nearby regions were positively correlated with standardized scores in grapheme-phoneme decoding ability, even when the effects of age were taken into account.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [36] Shaywitz, 2002, Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia, Biol. Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
The emergence of expertise in visual word recognition can be understood as a minimal reconfiguration of the visual system to meet the specific requirements of expert reading.
“In closing, we argue that the emergence of expertise in visual word recognition can be understood as a minimal reconfiguration of the visual system to meet the specific requirements of expert reading.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Conclusions and future directions · p. 5
The similarity between reading and other forms of acquired visual expertise emphasizes that our visual system progressively adapts to the tasks to which we put it.
“The similarity between reading and other forms of acquired visual expertise emphasizes that our visual system progressively adapts to the tasks to which we put it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Development of the VWFA · p. 4
Behavioral evidence on word perception supports the case for protracted development of perceptual expertise.
“Behavioral evidence on word perception supports the case for protracted development of perceptual expertise.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [34] Aghababian, 2000, Developing normal reading skills: aspects of the visual processes underlying word recognition, J. Exp. Child Psychol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [4] Gibson, 1962, The role of grapheme–phoneme correspondence in the perception of words, Am. J. Psychol. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [21] Posner, 1999, Brain circuitry during reading
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 3
Such perceptual expertise effects demonstrate principled ways in which experience can influence the functional organization of posterior-perceptual regions of the visual system.
“Such perceptual expertise effects demonstrate principled ways in which experience can influence the functional organization of posterior-perceptual regions of the visual system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6
The capability of part of this region to become responsive to learned letters is no accident but reflects the evolutionary history of the visual system combined with experience-dependent adaptations.
“The capability of part of this region to become responsive to learned letters is thus no accident but reflects the evolutionary history of the visual system combined with experience-dependent adaptations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 3
These processing benefits are also associated with changes in the response properties of ERPs recorded within the first 200 ms of processing stimuli.
“These processing benefits are linked to functional reorganizations in the response properties of a region of the right fusiform gyrus [32], which are also associated with changes in the response properties of ERPs recorded within the first 200 ms of processing stimuli [33].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [33] Tanaka, 2001, A neural basis for expert object recognition, Psychol. Sci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Box 1. Neuropsychological evidence · p. 3
Callosal lesions of fibers connecting the right-hemispheric visual regions to the VWFA provoke a subtype of pure alexia restricted to words displayed in the left half of the visual field.
“Callosal lesions of fibers connecting the right-hemispheric visual regions to the VWFA provoke a subtype of PA restricted to words displayed in the left half of the visual field [9,50].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [50] Molko, 2002, Visualizing the neural bases of a disconnection syndrome with diffusion tensor imaging, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 16
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1The speed of word recognition is remarkably uninfluenced by the number of letters present in a 3-6-letter word, indicating a form of parallel processing of the letters.
“Chronometric studies show that the speed of word recognition is remarkably uninfluenced by the number of letters present in a 3-6-letter word, indicating a form of parallel processing of the letters [2].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Nazir, 1998, Letter legibility and visual word recognition, Mem. Cogn. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Modality specificity · p. 2Selective damage to the left fusiform region impairs visual but not auditory word recognition.
“Finally, converging neuropsychological evidence indicates that selective damage to the left fusiform region impairs visual but not auditory word recognition (Box 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Spatial localization · p. 2This finding is robust enough to identify a significant peak of activation in over 90% of individual subject scans, with a standard deviation of <5 mm.
“This finding is robust enough to identify a significant peak of activation in over 90% of individual subject scans, with a standard deviation of , 5 mm [8-11] (Fig. 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [10] Polk, 2002, Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area, J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [11] Dehaene, 2002, The visual word form area: a prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus, Neuroreport source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1This process is highly sensitive to the abstract structural properties of the writing system, but largely insensitive to non-essential variations in visual features such as case and font.
“This process is highly sensitive to the abstract structural properties of the writing system, but largely insensitive to non-essential variations in visual features such as case and font [1].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Rayner, 1989
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Perceptual expertise underlying visual word recognition · p. 1These perceptual operations adapt well to large variations in surface features of word stimuli, such as changes in size, case, and font, and demonstrate significant transfer of priming benefits across such variations.
“Finally, these perceptual operations adapt well to large variations in surface features of word stimuli, such as changes in size, case, and font, and demonstrate significant transfer of priming benefits across such variations [1].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Rayner, 1989
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6IT neurons have vast receptive fields and respond selectively to certain objects or parts of objects across large changes in size, position and illumination.
“IT neurons have vast receptive fields and respond selectively to certain objects or parts of objects across large changes in size, position and illumination [39,40].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [39] Tanaka, 2003, Columns for complex visual object features in inferotemporal cortex: clustering of cells with similar but slightly different stimulus selectivities, Cereb. Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Einhauser, 2002, Learning the invariance properties of complex cells from their responses to natural stimuli, Eur. J. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6IT cortex is well known for its role in invariant object recognition.
“For example, inferotemporal (IT) cortex is well known for its role in invariant object recognition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [39] Tanaka, 2003, Columns for complex visual object features in inferotemporal cortex: clustering of cells with similar but slightly different stimulus selectivities, Cereb. Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Einhauser, 2002, Learning the invariance properties of complex cells from their responses to natural stimuli, Eur. J. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ Conclusions and future directions · p. 5The hypothesis of a progressive specialization of the left VWFA over the course of reading acquisition avoids problems inherent to the notion of a ready-made 'word recognition module'.
“The hypothesis of a progressive specialization of the left VWFA over the course of reading acquisition avoids problems inherent to the notion of a ready-made 'word recognition module'.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Writing was invented about 5400 years ago.
- Rests on an assumption: 5400 years is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized module for visual word recognition.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Development of the VWFA · p. 4Enhanced abilities to perceive well-structured letter strings appear early in the reading process, but such effects are restricted to high-frequency words and do not generalize to novel strings until 10-13 years of age.
“Although enhanced abilities to perceive well-structured letter strings appear early in the reading process, such effects are restricted to high-frequency words and do not generalize to novel strings until 10-13 years of age [4] (although see [35]).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Gibson, 1962, The role of grapheme–phoneme correspondence in the perception of words, Am. J. Psychol. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6Sensitivity to increasingly larger visual units varies along a posterior-to-anterior gradient, whereas sensitivity to increasingly eccentric sectors of the retina varies along a lateral-to-mesial gradient.
“Sensitivity to increasingly larger visual units varies along a posterior-toanterior gradient, whereas sensitivity to increasingly eccentric sectors of the retina varies along a lateral-tomesialgradient.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [43] Malach, 2002, The topography of high-order human object areas, Trends Cogn. Sci. source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6Much of the ventral processing stream is already well adapted to the invariant recognition of fine basic shapes in the fovea.
“Much of the ventral processing stream is already well adapted to the invariant recognition of fine basic shapes in the fovea.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Development of the VWFA · p. 4Unlike adults, 6- to 7-year-old children demonstrate robust word-length effects, which gradually diminish over the following years but are still detectable as late as grade 5 (11-12 years old).
“Unlike adults, 6- to 7-year-old children (American first-graders) demonstrate robust word-length effects, which gradually diminish over the following years but are still detectable as late as grade 5 (11-12 years old) [34].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [34] Aghababian, 2000, Developing normal reading skills: aspects of the visual processes underlying word recognition, J. Exp. Child Psychol. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Box 1. Neuropsychological evidence · p. 3Pure alexia patients are able to identify single letters, and develop letter-by-letter reading strategies resulting in reading latencies that increase by hundreds of milliseconds for each additional letter.
“In contrast to global alexia, PA patients are able to identify single letters, and develop letter-by-letter reading strategies resulting in reading latencies that increase by hundreds of milliseconds for each additional letter [49].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [49] Cohen, L. et al. (2003) Visual word recognition in the left and right hemispheres: anatomical and functional correlates of peripheral alexias. Cereb. Cortex (in press). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Development of the VWFA · p. 4Developmental studies of the N200 ERP responses to letter strings demonstrate a similar pattern, suggesting that 10-year-olds produce adult-like responses to high-frequency words but fail to generalize such responses to pseudowords.
“Developmental studies of the N200 ERP responses to letter strings demonstrate a similar pattern, suggesting that 10-year-olds produce adult-like responses to highfrequency words but fail to generalize such responses to pseudowords [21].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] Posner, 1999, Brain circuitry during reading
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ Box 3. VWFA in developmental dyslexia · p. 6Such differences have not yet been associated with neuropathology in this region, but may instead reflect the absence of a specialization that accrues over the course of years of successful reading experience.
“Such differences have not yet been associated with neuropathology in this region, but mayinstead reflect the absence of a specialization that accrues over the course of years of successful reading experience [55].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [55] McCandliss, B.D. and Noble, K. (2003) The development of reading impairment: a cognitive neuroscience model. Mental Retard. Dev. Disab. Res. Rev. (in press). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 4The specialization process should be protracted over a long period of experience and the response properties of the VWFA should evolve in parallel with the rise of cognitive hallmarks of expertise.
“This view on the origin of the VWFA implies that the specialization process should be protracted over a long period of experience and that the response properties of the VWFA should evolve in parallel with the rise of cognitive hallmarks of expertise.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5Functional areas probably include the left angular gyrus, left inferior frontal cortex, and temporal regions anterior to the VWFA.
“Although the precise projections from VWFA to systems involved in lexical, semantic and phonological processes are currently less clearly defined, functional areas probably include the left angular gyrus [52], left inferior frontal cortex [53], and temporal regions anterior to the VWFA [54].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [52] Horwitz, 1998, Functional connectivity of the angular gyrus in normal reading and dyslexia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [53] Bokde, 2001, Functional interactions of the inferior frontal cortex during the processing of words and word-like stimuli, Neuron source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [54] Giraud, 2001, The constraints functional neuroanatomy places on classical models of auditory word processing, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5Separate pathways in left and right hemispheres are integrated in the left lateralized VWFA, which mediates between visually specific input, and more abstract linguistic areas responsible for lexical, semantic and phonological processes.
“Separate pathways in left and right hemispheres are integrated in the left lateralized Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), which mediates between visually specific input, and moreabstract linguistic areas responsible for lexical, semantic and phonological processes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone given§ Box 2. Model of functional anatomy for invariant word perception · p. 5Ventral visual regions receive top-down attentional influences associated with left and right parietal regions that are likely to affect all processing levels, and whose impairment might therefore lead to various forms of neglect dyslexia.
“Finally, ventral visual regions receive top-down attentional influences associated with left and right parietal regions that are likely to affect all processing levels, and whose impairment might therefore lead to various forms of neglect dyslexia.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Writing was invented about 5400 years ago.
“given that the cultural invention of writing upon which this specialization is predicated did not exist until , 5400 years ago”
The paper relies on this without support.
5400 years is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized module for visual word recognition.
“which is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized 'module' for visual word recognition.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The VWFA is left lateralized in most subjects.
“Although the VWFA is left lateralized in most subjects”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
NeuroSynth replicated previous findings of visual category-specific activation in the fusiform face area and visual word form area.
“we used NeuroSynth to replicate previous findings of visual category-specific activation in regions such as the fusiform face area (FFA12) and visual word form area (VWFA13”
From Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data. (2011) · cites this paper as [13]
The posterior temporal region more active for letter than category fluency overlaps with the visual word form area and with multimodal orthographic-phonological processing sites.
“Interestingly, the region of posterior temporal cortex more active for the letter than category fluency conditions overlaps with an area implicated by previous studies as being involved in the visual processing of word forms (i.e., the visual word form areas, VWFA; McCandliss et al., 2003), as well as with other word processing sites that appears to have a multimodal function; i.e., for combining”
From Neural systems supporting lexical search guided by letter and semantic category cues: a self-paced overt response fMRI study of verbal fluency (2010) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
This cortex is partially plastic and can, during ontogenesis, become progressively attuned to the requirements of reading.
“This cortex is partially plastic and can, during ontogenesis, become progressively attuned to the requirements of reading (McCandliss et al., 2003).”
From Specialization within the ventral stream: the case for the visual word form area (2004) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
It takes years for children to develop expert word recognition, and the emergence of this expertise correlates with the amount of activation of the VWFA by letter strings in normal and dyslexic children.
“Finally, it should be remembered that it takes years for children to develop expert word recognition (Aghababian and Nazir, 2000), and that the emergence of this expertise correlates with the amount of activation of the VWFA by letter strings in normal and dyslexic children (McCandliss et al., 2003; Shaywitz et al., 2002; Temple, 2002).”
From Specialization within the ventral stream: the case for the visual word form area (2004) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
The left-FFG is involved in letter identification and reading.
“The left-FFG was found to be involved in letter identification and reading (McCandliss et al., 2003; Dehaene and Cohen, 2011; McNorgan et al., 2013).”
From Functional neuroimaging of visuospatial working memory tasks enables accurate detection of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (2015) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting descriptions of prime awareness
MinorThe figure caption says subjects were "not unaware" of the primes, but later says the primes activated the area without awareness. These statements conflict about whether subjects were aware of the primes.
“Subjects were engaged in a semantic classification task on target words and were not unaware of the presence of primes.”
“This suggests that this area holds a case-invariant neural code for visual words and that this code can be activated automatically without awareness.”
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Ben‐Shachar, M., Dougherty, R. F., & Wandell, B. A. (2007) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2007.03.006 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
The Development of Cortical Sensitivity to Visual Word Forms
Ben-Shachar, M., Dougherty, R. F., Deutsch, G. K., & Wandell, B. A. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2011.21615 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Trait Anxiety Modulates the Neural Efficiency of Inhibitory Control
Basten, U., Stelzel, C., & Fiebach, C. J. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00003 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Interplay between computational models and cognitive electrophysiology in visual word recognition
Barber, H. A., & Marta Kutas, A. (2006) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.07.002 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Arias, O. S., Evans, D. K., Santos, I. V., & Arias, O. (2019) · Washington, DC: World Bank and Agence française de développement eBooks · doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1149-4 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Neural substrates of narrative comprehension and memory
Yarkoni, T., Speer, N. K., & Zacks, J. M. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.062 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
- Authors
- McCandliss, B. D., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Corresponding author
- McCandliss, Bruce D.
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-07
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 293-299
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2143709903
- Semantic Scholar
- efc50447601a00424b368385d84c969f5e00395f
- Cited by
- 1,489
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 66 · 2012: 78
- FWCI
- 8.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- visual word form area, fusiform gyrus, reading, visual word recognition, visual expertise, functional reorganization, brain specialization, writing systems, visual cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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