School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach

Environmental conditions and interpersonal interactions, whether positive or negative, become biologically embedded and shape or canalize brain and behavioral development.

“environmental conditions and interpersonal interactions, both positive and negative, are embedded biologically, shaping or canalizing the development of brain and behavior”

• cites Blair & Raver 2012 sourceSupported
• cites McEwen & Gianaros 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says environmental exposure interacts with genetic liability from in utero onward, and that stressful experiences can produce adaptive or maladaptive changes in brain plasticity and behavior. The Interventions section also discusses interpersonal relationships and social support. The paper does not establish the broader claim that positive and negative environmental conditions and interpersonal interactions generally become biologically embedded and canalize brain and behavioral development. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Multiple indicators of self-regulation are relevant to short- and long-term academic and behavioral outcomes in school.

“A growing empirical base clearly documents the relevance of multiple indicators of self-regulation to short- and long-term academic and behavioral outcomes in school”

• cites Hamre & Pianta 2001 sourceCould not verify

  Semantic Scholar returned no full-text snippets for Hamre and Pianta (2001) on either of two paper-scoped searches. The cited paper’s title concerns early teacher–child relationships and later school outcomes, but the available evidence does not establish its specific claim about multiple indicators of self-regulation. Unscoped results discuss self-regulation in other papers, but none provides a high-confidence match that would establish misattribution. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites McClelland et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Riggs et al. 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The approach to school readiness as self-regulation is based in the neurobiology of executive functions and emotional development as seen in the Rothbart and Posner psychobiological model of temperament.

“The approach to school readiness as self-regulation is based in the neurobiology of executive functions and emotional development as seen in the psychobiological model of temperament developed by Rothbart, Posner, and colleagues”

• cites Derryberry & Rothbart 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Posner & Rothbart 1998 sourceCould not verify

  Semantic Scholar does not index the cited chapter, “The Development of Orienting to Locations and Objects,” so its text could not be checked. Unscoped results discuss Rothbart and Posner’s model and its relevance to self-regulation, but the strongest match scores only 0.655 and is not the cited chapter. These results do not establish that the chapter supports the school-readiness claim or that it was misattributed. (LLM, conf=0.65)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Rothbart 2004 sourceCould not verify

  Semantic Scholar does not index Rothbart’s 2004 “General introduction,” so its abstract and full text cannot be checked. An unscoped search found “School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach” (score 0.703) and a relevant passage in “The Promotion of Self-Regulation as a Means of Enhancing School Readiness and Early Achievement in Children at Risk for School Failure” (score 0.681). Those matches show the claim’s ideas appear in the literature, but they do not establish that Rothbart’s introduction makes the claim or that the attribution is wrong. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Regulation of reactivity through attention is associated with three functionally, anatomically, and neurochemically distinct attention networks: alerting, orienting, and executive.

“The regulation of this reactivity through attention is associated with three functionally, anatomically, and neurochemically distinct networks of attention in the brain: the alerting, orienting, and executive systems”

• cites Petersen & Posner 2012 sourceSupported

Attention amplifies or regulates emotional and physiological arousal in an inverted U-shaped curve.

“Attention serves to amplify or regulate levels of emotional and physiological arousal, and does so in the form of an inverted U-shaped curve”

• cites Arnsten 2009 sourcePartly supported

  The passages labeled Abstract (page unavailable) discuss attention regulation under stress and an inverted U-shaped relationship between noradrenaline levels and working memory. They do not say that attention amplifies or regulates emotional and physiological arousal, or that attention does so along an inverted U-shaped curve. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites D. Diamond et al. 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Studies demonstrate that young children's exposure to supportive versus negative interactions with parents, teachers, and peers shapes individual differences in emotional reactivity and regulation, attention control, and higher-order cognitive functions, partly through stress physiology.

“Increasingly, studies have also demonstrated that young children’s exposure to supportive versus negative interactions with parents, teachers, and peers shapes individual differences in emotional reactivity and regulation, in the control of attention, and in higher-order cognitive functions, in part through the mechanism of stress physiology”

• cites Blair et al. 2011bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Evans & Schamberg 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ursache et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Child-care studies show that children's physiological reactivity, indicated by morning-to-afternoon rising cortisol on days attending out-of-home programs, and emotional reactivity are affected by the quality of teacher sensitivity versus intrusiveness and attention.

“A series of child-care studies (both in center-based and home-based care) has consistently demonstrated that children’s physiological reactivity as indicated by morning-to-afternoon rising cortisol levels on days attending out-of-home programs as well as emotional reactivity is affected by the quality of sensitivity versus intrusiveness and attention provided by teachers in those settings”

• cites Badanes et al. 2012 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Crockenberg & Leerkes 2005 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports morning-to-afternoon cortisol increases in full-day, center-based childcare, and §1.2 describes associations between cortisol responses and children's emotional characteristics. Neither passage establishes that teacher sensitivity, intrusiveness, or attention affects physiological and emotional reactivity across center- and home-based care. The Introduction says the reported cortisol increases were observed while controlling for childcare quality. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Dettling et al. 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The estimated effect sizes for teacher-student relationships and achievement are larger for children who are academically or behaviorally at risk.

“these estimated effect sizes are larger for children who are academically or behaviorally at risk (Hamre & Pianta 2001, Liew et al. 2010).”

• cites Hamre & Pianta 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Liew et al. 2010 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Regression Analyses; page not available) report larger teacher–student relationship effect sizes for children with low task accuracy than for those with high task accuracy. The study examined academically at-risk children, but it did not compare effect sizes between academically at-risk and other children; low task accuracy is also not established as a measure of behavioral risk. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

On relatively simple relational reasoning tasks, younger children show increased prefrontal cortex activity relative to older children.

“On relatively simple relational reasoning tasks, children at younger ages show increased levels of activity in PFC relative to children at older ages”

• cites Durston et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Eslinger et al. 2009 sourceSupported

A small proportion of children enter classrooms with a strong biobehavioral tendency to show high reticence and anxiety when confronted with new people, places, and things.

“a small proportion of children enter classrooms with a strong biobehavioral tendency to show high levels of reticence and anxiety when confronted with new people, places, and things”

• cites Rubin et al. 1995 sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s introductory discussion (page unavailable) describes temperamentally wary or fearful children who may become socially reticent when they poorly regulate reactions to novelty. Its Additional information section reports anxiety and reticence in a subgroup, but does not establish that a small proportion of children enter classrooms with a strong biobehavioral tendency to respond this way to new people, places, and things. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The stressful nature of low-quality care may become biologically embedded for some children, with cascading effects on emotion regulation and executive functions.

“These child-care studies suggest that the stressful nature of low-quality care may get under the skin for some children, with cascading influences on child emotion regulation and executive functions”

• cites Ursache et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Differential susceptibility and biological sensitivity theories section proposes that adverse environments can shape stress responses, affecting regulation and executive functioning. The Discussion links emotional regulation and executive functioning to environmental quality. However, this study assessed maternal caregiving, not child-care quality, and did not establish that low-quality child care becomes biologically embedded. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Watamura et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Increases in vocabulary, language ability, and competence with numbers, letters, and words facilitate executive function abilities.

“increases in vocabulary, language ability, and competence with numbers, letters, and words will facilitate executive function abilities (Ferrer et al. 2007, Welsh et al. 2010).”

• cites Ferrer et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Welsh et al. 2010 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion section, “Reciprocal Relations with Numeracy Skills” (page unavailable), reports that early numeracy skills predicted later executive functions. It explicitly says emergent literacy skills did not predict growth in executive functions, and does not establish that increases in vocabulary or language ability facilitate them. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Executive function abilities facilitate the acquisition of knowledge.

“Just as executive function abilities will facilitate the acquisition of knowledge”

• cites Ferrer et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Welsh et al. 2010 sourceSupported

Children in poverty are far less likely than higher-income counterparts to enter school ready to learn.

“children in poverty are far less likely than their higher-income counterparts to enter school ready to learn (Magnuson et al. 2004).”

• cites Magnuson et al. 2004 sourceSupported

CSRP effect sizes ranged from 0.34 to 0.63.

“Effect sizes (ESs) of this intervention were substantial, ranging from 0.34 to 0.63.”

• cites Raver et al. 2011 sourceSupported

The impact of economic hardship on young children's school readiness is a major source of long-term social, economic, and educational inequality in the United States and the developed world.

“the impact of economic hardship on young children’s school readiness represents a major source of long-term social, economic, and educational inequality in the United States and the developed world (Blair & Raver 2012).”

• cites Blair & Raver 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The section on Poverty, Parenting, and the Psychobiology of Self-Regulation (page unavailable) says poverty adversely affects children’s development and describes income-related differences in vocabulary. The Classroom-Based Intervention section discusses poverty-related hazards and children’s long-term developmental trajectories. Our copy does not establish the more specific claim that economic hardship’s effect on school readiness is a major source of long-term social, economic, and educational inequality in the United States and developed world. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The physical and psychosocial conditions of poverty, including experiences with caregivers, influence self-regulation development.

“the physical as well as psychosocial conditions of poverty, including experiences with caregivers, influence self-regulation development (Blair et al. 2011a,b; Evans 2003; Raver et al. 2013).”

• cites Blair et al. 2011a,bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Evans 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Raver et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable in our copy) reports that cumulative poverty and family financial strain predicted lower executive function at age four, an aspect of self-regulation. The paper also considers housing conditions, but says that whether parenting mediates the relationship is beyond its scope. Its observational findings therefore do not establish that experiences with caregivers influence self-regulation development. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

CSRP improved low-income children's executive function skills, indexed by attention and impulse control ratings and by direct inhibitory control and working memory assessments, from fall to spring of the Head Start year.

“CSRP improved low-income children’s executive function skills, as indexed by assessors’ ratings of children’s attention and impulse control as well as on direct assessments of inhibitory control and working memory, from fall to spring of the Head Start year.”

• cites Raver et al. 2011 sourceSupported

Children in poverty have fewer opportunities for exposure to learning activities such as reading and rich varied language that promote literacy and vocabulary development.

“Children in poverty also have fewer opportunities for exposure to learning activities, such as exposure to reading and to rich and varied language that can promote literacy and vocabulary development (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan 1997, Fernald et al. 2013).”

• cites Brooks-Gunn & Duncan 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fernald et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion section, “Exploring Sources of Variability in Young Children's Early Language Proficiency” (page unavailable), describes SES differences in the amount and quality of child-directed speech. The paper also links early language environments to vocabulary, but the passages do not establish that children in poverty have fewer opportunities for reading activities or that those activities promote literacy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

CSRP had significant benefits for children's academic skills as measured by vocabulary, letter-naming, and math assessments.

“Analyses also suggested significant benefits of CSRP for children’s academic skills as measured by direct assessments of children’s vocabulary, letter-naming, and math skills (Raver et al. 2011).”

• cites Raver et al. 2011 sourceSupported

In early-intervention studies, academic achievement effects were sustained into secondary grades even without sizable sustained intelligence effects, suggesting improvements in self-regulation as a potential mechanism.

“effects on academic achievement were sustained into the secondary grades, even in the absence of sizable sustained effects on intelligence, which suggests improvements in self-regulation as a potential mechanism of effects (Heckman et al. 2012).”

• cites Heckman et al. 2012 sourceSupported

A meta-analysis of read-aloud interventions found moderate to large effects on multiple aspects of literacy development, including phonological awareness and vocabulary.

“A meta-analysis of read-aloud interventions, of which dialogic reading is an example, found moderate to large effects on multiple aspects of literacy development including phonological awareness and vocabulary (Swanson et al. 2011).”

• cites Swanson et al. 2011 sourceSupported

Kindergarten teachers' views imply a multidimensional theory of learning in which social-emotional skills and cognitive abilities, attention, language, and executive functions are involved.

“Implicit in kindergarten teachers’ views on school readiness is a multidimensional theory of learning and of the process by which children engage with and make sense of interrelated and increasingly complex types of information.”

Focusing on self-regulation development gives a common framework for psychological research on school readiness and for supporting it.

“a focus on self-regulation development provides a common framework for psychological research on what it means to be ready to start school and for the best ways in which to support school readiness”

Experiential shaping of physiological and psychological development suggests possible match or mismatch between school expectations and the expectations of the pre-school environment.

“This experiential shaping of physiological and psychological development suggests the potential for match or mismatch between the expectations of the school environment and the expectations of the environment experienced prior to school entry.”

Temperament and social-emotional aspects are not more or less important for school readiness than cognitive abilities.

“It is not, however, that temperament or social and emotional aspects of children’s development are more (or less) important for school readiness than are cognitive abilities.”

Early-life activity in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in the expressed genome responds to experience and is adaptive for the developmental context.

“activity early in life in the central and peripheral nervous systems and the expressed genome are responsive to experience and adaptive for the context in which development is occurring”

• cites Zhang & Meaney 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Early studies found that high positive emotionality and low distractibility are associated with better adjustment to kindergarten.

“A number of early studies focusing on temperament found not unsurprisingly that high levels of positive emotionality and low levels of distractibility are associated with better adjustment to kindergarten”

• cites Keogh 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Martin et al. 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palinsin 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A nationally representative sample of kindergarten teachers endorsed a conception of readiness that includes being physically well nourished and rested, able to communicate wants and needs verbally, enthusiastic and curious, paying attention and following directions, not disruptive, and sensitive to other children's feelings.

“teachers responded by endorsing a conception of readiness as being physically well nourished and rested, able to communicate wants and needs verbally, to be enthusiastic and curious in approaching new activities, to pay attention and follow directions, to not be disruptive, and to be sensitive to other children’s feelings”

• cites Heaviside & Farris 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Meta-analyses of six longitudinal datasets indicated that early academic ability is the best predictor of later academic ability.

“As meta-analyses of six longitudinal datasets indicated, early academic ability is the best predictor of later academic ability”

• cites Duncan et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Research on self-regulation indicates effective ways to counteract poverty-related gaps in school readiness.

“points the way to effective approaches to counteract these conditions”

School readiness research now covers multiple interrelated influences on development that are best united under the construct of self-regulation.

“School readiness research now encompasses multiple interrelated influences on children’s development that for the most part are best united under the construct of self-regulation.”

• cites Blair 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mashburn & Pianta 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Temperamental and social-emotional aspects are interrelated with and integral to cognitive ability, primarily executive functions and attention regulation.

“They are, in fact, interrelated with and integral to aspects of child cognitive ability, primarily executive functions and the regulation of attention that are centrally important for learning in school.”

Very few kindergarten teachers endorsed a strictly academic conception of readiness.

“Very few teachers endorsed a strictly academic conception of readiness characterized by such skills and abilities as being able to count to 20, to know the letters of the alphabet, to know colors and shapes, or to be able to use a pencil or paintbrush.”

• cites Heaviside & Farris 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Self-regulation, and therefore school readiness, arises from integrated biological and behavioral developmental processes that are shaped by the contexts where development takes place.

“self-regulation and consequently school readiness are the product of integrated developmental processes at the biological and behavioral levels that are shaped by the contexts in which development is occurring”

Kindergarten teachers clearly endorsed a model of readiness as self-regulation.

“In short, teachers clearly endorsed a model of readiness as self-regulation”

Through recursive feed-forward and feedback processes, the self-regulation system developmentally comes to a particular set point or level.

“Through these recursive feed-forward and feedback processes, the self-regulation system is understood to come, developmentally, to a particular set point or level.”

Key aspects of school readiness at neurobiological and behavioral levels are shaped by family and classroom settings and social contexts.

“Key aspects of school readiness at both neurobiological and behavioral levels are shaped by family and classroom settings and social contexts.”

The relation of executive functions to task complexity is seen in neuroimaging studies with adults and children that parametrically manipulate complexity.

“This relation of executive functions to task complexity is seen in neuroimaging studies with adults and children that parametrically manipulate complexity”

• cites Callicott et al. 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

An early correlational study showed that working memory and flexible shifting of attention independently predict early mathematics achievement over and above reading ability and IQ.

“An early demonstration of this relation was seen in a correlational study in which measures of working memory and the flexible shifting of attention were shown to independently predict early mathematics achievement over and above measures of reading ability and IQ”

• cites Bull & Scerif 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Phonemic awareness requires flexible shifting of attention, seeing a word both as a complete word and as composed of smaller words.

“This ability requires the flexible shifting of attention, of seeing the word toothbrush in two ways, both as a complete word and also as composed of two smaller words.”

Similar executive cognitive challenge is seen in early literacy development such as phonemic awareness.

“Similar executive cognitive challenge or demand is seen in aspects of early literacy development such as phonemic awareness.”

Development of effective self-regulation is promoted in early childhood by fostering regulation of emotion, attention, and stress reactivity, primarily within the family and also within child care before school entry.

“The development of effective self-regulation is promoted in early childhood by fostering the regulation of emotion, attention, and stress reactivity, primarily within the context of the family but also within the context of child care prior to school entry.”

More time in out-of-home care when the home environment is very low is associated with a lower resting level of cortisol.

“Conversely, more time in out-of-home care when the quality of the home environment is very low is associated with a lower resting level of cortisol”

• cites Berry et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Activity at each level also feeds back on the level below.

“Activity at each level, however, also feeds back on the level below.”

In the Rothbart-Posner model, individual differences in temperament are understood as the interplay between biologically based emotional and motor reactivity and its regulation through approach and withdrawal strategies and attention.

“individual differences in temperament are understood as the give and take between biologically based tendencies toward emotional and motor reactivity and the regulation of this reactivity through approach and withdrawal behavioral strategies and through attention”

• cites Posner & Rothbart 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Executive function abilities at all ages, particularly in young children, depend on an appropriate level of complexity and support for regulating moderate stress.

“executive function abilities at all ages, but particularly in young children in whom they are just developing, are dependent on an appropriate level of complexity and support for the regulation of moderate stress”

Ongoing research emphasizes maturation and family investments such as sensitive, nurturant, and language-rich care as key influences on young children's early social-emotional and cognitive skills.

“Ongoing research on school readiness emphasizes the respective roles of maturation and of family investments such as parents’ provision of sensitive, nurturant, and language-rich care as key influences on young children’s early social-emotional and cognitive skills”

• cites Smith et al. 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

At the genetic level, individual differences exist in genes coding for the sensitivity of neural receptors to catecholamines and glucocorticoids.

“At the genetic level (see Figure 1) are individual differences in genes that code for the sensitivity of neural receptors to catecholamines and glucocorticoids.”

Executive function abilities are as important, if not more so, for early school success as general intelligence.

“One primary finding of this research has been that executive function abilities are as important (if not more so) for early success in school than is general intelligence.”

At moderate levels of complexity, neural activity in prefrontal cortex areas supporting executive functions is relatively more focused and efficient in individuals with higher executive cognitive ability than in those with lesser ability.

“At moderate levels of complexity, neural activity in areas of PFC that support executive functions is relatively more focused and efficient in individuals with higher executive cognitive ability relative to individuals with lesser ability.”

Additional studies show distinct relations of executive functions to mathematics and reading, controlling for general mental ability, baseline academic ability, and social-emotional competence and effortful control.

“A number of additional studies have shown distinct relations of executive functions to mathematics and reading, again controlling for general mental ability (Clark et al. 2010, Espy et al. 2004), baseline measures of academic ability (McClelland et al. 2007), and aspects of social and emotional competence and temperamental effortful control”

• cites Clark et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Espy et al. 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites McClelland et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Executive function abilities are central to performance on many learning activities in kindergarten and the early elementary grades.

“Executive function abilities are central to performance on many of the types of learning activities in which children are engaged in kindergarten and the early elementary grades.”

These attention systems both amplify and modulate reactivity in emotional and motivational systems.

“These attention systems serve to both amplify and modulate reactivity in emotional and motivational systems”

• cites Posner & Rothbart 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Given brain maturation, particularly prefrontal cortex maturation, it is logical that children begin formal schooling at about age 6.

“Given what is known about the timetable for brain maturation, particularly maturation of PFC, it is logical that children would begin formal schooling at about the age of 6 years.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The timetable of brain maturation, particularly prefrontal cortex maturation, is sufficiently known to support beginning formal schooling at about age 6.

As neurochemicals rise to moderate levels, they stimulate neural activity in prefrontal cortex areas underlying executive attention and executive function.

“As these neurochemicals rise to moderate levels, they stimulate neural activity in areas of prefrontal cortex (PFC) that underlie executive attention and executive function abilities.”

From a neurobiological perspective, the association between self-regulation and school readiness is clear.

“From this neurobiological perspective, the association between self-regulation and school readiness is clear.”

The neurobiology of executive functions maps onto the inverted U-shaped Yerkes-Dodson curve relating anxiety to performance.

“the neurobiology of executive functions maps onto the well-known inverted U-shaped Yerkes-Dodson curve relating anxiety to performance”

Executive attention is activated by conflict or disparity between an expected and a current state of events.

“Executive attention, or the volitional control of attention, is particularly relevant because it is activated by conflict or disparity between an expected and current state of events.”

If information is presented consistently with prior information and within the individual's prior knowledge, executive functions are more likely to be utilized.

“If information is presented in ways that are consistent with prior information and in the range of the individual’s prior knowledge, then executive functions are more likely to be utilized.”

Children are ready to start school when they can sufficiently manage stimulation and attention to regulate emotion and attention in ways that enable sustained engagement with learning activities.

“Children are ready to start school when they have reached a point in development at which they are sufficiently able to manage stimulation and attention in ways that begin to allow for the regulation of emotion and attention that enables sustained engagement with learning activities.”

The neurobiology of the self-regulation system as the interplay between emotion and attention provides the basis for applying it to school readiness and achievement.

“The neurobiology of the self-regulation system as the give and take between emotion and attention provides the basis for its application to school readiness and school achievement.”

The relation of executive cognitive ability to information complexity is the basis for the Vygotskian notion of the zone of proximal development.

“This relation of executive cognitive ability to the complexity of information is the basis for the Vygotskian notion of the zone of proximal development.”

Early mathematics learning represents a classic executive function challenge.

“As such early mathematics learning represents a classic executive function challenge.”

Through stress physiology, the feedback system extends to the genetic level to influence gene expression.

“Through stress physiology, the feedback system extends to the genetic level to influence gene expression”

• cites Meaney 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites van IJzendoorn et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The role of executive functions in school readiness and early school success is also seen in their relation to motivation and engagement.

“In addition to the growth of academic knowledge, the role of executive functions in school readiness and early school success is also seen in their relation to motivation and engagement.”

A simple maturational perspective on readiness fails to account for the process of development itself.

“Of course, such a simple maturational perspective on readiness fails to take into account the process of development itself.”

Exercises in ordinality, cardinality, transivity, and pattern completion require young children to flexibly shift attention and inhibit one representation in favor of another.

“Exercises in ordinality, cardinality, transivity, and pattern completion require young children to flexibly shift attention among problem elements and to inhibit one representation of a given symbol or object in favor of another in response to context-dependent cues.”

At a given level of task complexity, individuals with higher ability display more focal and less diffuse brain activity than those with lower ability.

“At a given level of task complexity, individuals with higher ability display more focal and less diffuse brain activity than those with lower ability”

• cites Rypma et al. 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The inherent demand of mathematics activities on executive functions is highlighted by conceptual and content-based analyses, achievement analyses, neurobiology of mathematical thinking, and textbook exercises.

“The inherent demand of mathematics activities on executive functions is highlighted by conceptual and content-based analyses of early mathematics learning activities for young children (Blair et al. 2008b, Bull & Lee 2014) as well as by analyses of mathematics achievement (Espy et al. 2004).”

• cites Blair et al. 2008bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bull & Lee 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Espy et al. 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Across 99 studies, the relation between teacher-reported relationships with students and student achievement has an average effect size of about one-quarter of a standard deviation.

“Effect sizes of approximately one-quarter of a standard deviation have been found across 99 studies examining the relation between teacher-reported relationships with students (both positive and conflictual) and student achievement”

• cites Roorda et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Children's social and emotional functioning is shaped by classroom experience as much as children may shape it.

“children’s social and emotional functioning are shaped by classroom experience as much as children may also shape it.”

Positive engagement with peers supports early reading and mathematics outcomes.

“to support key outcomes such as early reading and mathematics (Bryan & Bryan 1991, Coolahan et al. 2000, Fuchs et al. 2001).”

• cites Bryan & Bryan 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Coolahan et al. 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fuchs et al. 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A second group of children enter the classroom with a biobehavioral tendency to approach new peers and situations with exuberance rather than fear.

“a second group of children enter the classroom with a remarkably different profile, a biobehavioral tendency to approach new peers and new situations with emotional displays that are characterized by exuberance rather than fear”

• cites Kagan et al. 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Rimm-Kaufman et al. 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This pattern is mirrored in the developmental literature, primarily in cross-sectional samples.

“This pattern is mirrored in the developmental literature, as seen primarily in cross-sectional samples.”

Peers' behavioral self-control and academic and language skills are substantially important when classroom composition is used to predict academic achievement.

“peers’ behavioral self-control and academic and language skills have been found to be of substantial importance when considering classroom composition as a predictor of academic achievement (Whitmore 2005).”

• cites Whitmore 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The estimated effect sizes for teacher-student relationships and achievement remain robust when earlier baseline academic ability is included.

“these estimates are robust to the inclusion of earlier, baseline measures of academic ability”

• cites Roorda et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Investments in classroom practices and curricula that build executive function and layer on cognitively challenging and content-rich curricula are likely to support young children in building both fluid and crystallized skills.

“investments in both classroom practices and curricula that build executive function and layer on cognitively challenging and content-rich curricula are likely to provide young children with support in building both those skills alternately characterized as fluid and crystallized.”

Early teacher-child relationships, measured by teacher ratings of closeness versus conflict, are moderately to strongly predictive of students' attention and engagement during classroom activities.

“those early relationships have been found to be moderately to strongly predictive of students’ attention and engagement during classroom activities (Skinner et al. 1990, Split et al. 2012).”

• cites Skinner et al. 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Split et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Teacher ratings of closeness versus conflict validly measure the quality of student-teacher relationships.

Prosocially oriented children who are more likely to approach and play with peers demonstrate greater attention, persistence, and more positive attitudes toward learning across the school year than more socially reticent children.

“Prosocially oriented children who are more likely to approach and play with peers have also been found to demonstrate greater attention, persistence, and more positive attitudes toward learning across the school year than do more socially reticent children”

• cites Coolahan et al. 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A focus on self-regulation and executive functions in school readiness research does not replace or take precedence over a focus on acquired knowledge and cognitive abilities.

“a focus on self-regulation and executive functions in school readiness research does not supplant or take precedence over a focus on acquired knowledge and the development of cognitive abilities”

Early mathematics ability is the strongest predictor of later academic outcomes, over and above teacher-report measures of attention and behavior problems.

“The analysis of Duncan and colleagues (2007) of six datasets indicated that early mathematics ability was the strongest predictor of later academic outcomes, over and above a variety of primarily teacher report measures of attention and behavior problems.”

• cites Duncan et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

An emphasis on the emotional climate of the classroom is a productive pathway through which learning can be facilitated, not merely a caring approach.

“an emphasis on the emotional climate of the classroom is not simply a caring approach to young children’s experience but represents a productive pathway through which learning can be facilitated.”

With increasing task complexity, activation increases in an inverted U-shaped pattern.

“With increasing task complexity, however, activation increases in the inverted U-shaped pattern.”

Recent meta-analyses suggest that children's capacity to form friendships and maintain prosocial relationships with peers has low predictive power for long-run academic outcomes.

“recent meta-analyses have suggested that children’s capacity to form friendships and to maintain prosocial relationships with peers has low predictive power when estimating long-run academic outcomes”

• cites Duncan et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The relation of self-regulation to school readiness is also seen in research on child social development in classroom settings.

“The relation of self-regulation to school readiness is also seen in research on the role of child social development in the context of classroom settings.”

With increasing age, prefrontal cortex activity decreases as children solve relatively simple relational problems through faster pattern recognition and knowledge retrieval.

“With increasing age, activity in PFC is decreased as children are able to solve relatively simple relational problems through faster pattern recognition and knowledge retrieval processes.”

Because models rely on teachers' reports of individual children's social skills as predictors of later achievement, they may miss key ways peers affect learning.

“because these models rely on teachers’ reports of individual children’s social skills as predictors of their later achievement, they may miss out on key ways that peers are likely to affect learning”

Social and emotional skills across emotional reactivity, regulation, and relationships with teachers and peers are important for school readiness.

“Together, these studies focusing on children’s social and emotional skills across areas of emotional reactivity, regulation, and relationships with teachers and peers underscore the importance of these domains for school readiness.”

For studies using standardized achievement measures, the estimated effect size for teacher-reported relationships and achievement is about d = 0.15.

“with smaller-sized estimates (approximately d = 0.15) for those studies relying on standardized measures of achievement as the outcome (Roorda et al. 2011).”

• cites Roorda et al. 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Children enter early educational settings with clear individual differences in executive function and associated emotional self-regulatory skill.

“children also enter early educational settings with clear individual differences in executive function and associated emotional self-regulatory skill.”

Fluid abilities, essentially executive functions, are associated with the prefrontal cortex and related brain areas.

“Fluid abilities, essentially executive functions, as noted above, are associated with PFC and related brain areas.”

Children in the CSRP treatment group had significantly fewer internalizing behavior problems than control children by spring of the Head Start year.

“children in the treatment group were reported by their teachers as having significantly fewer internalizing (or sad and withdrawn) behavior problems than did their control group enrolled counterparts by spring of the Head Start year.”

• cites Raver et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The stress physiology effects suggest a higher level of physiological engagement, consistent with the inverted U-shaped curve.

“suggesting a higher level of physiological engagement, consistent with the inverted U-shaped curve described above.”

Support of early learning that focuses jointly and recursively on self-regulation and academic content can most effectively promote school readiness, particularly for children with low support, as in poverty.

“Support of early learning that focuses jointly and recursively on self-regulation and on academic content can most effectively promote school readiness, particularly for children for whom support for both is low, as in the context of poverty.”

Smaller effects of the kindergarten Tools curriculum were seen in all low-poverty and high-poverty schools on reading, mathematics, and working memory.

“Smaller effects of the curriculum were seen in all low-poverty as well as high-poverty schools on measures of reading, mathematics, and working memory.”

• cites Blair & Raver 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

REDI intervention effects on teachers' perceptions of children's social competence were greatest for children with low task orientation.

“Intervention effects on teachers’ perceptions of children’s social competence were found to be greatest for children with low levels of task orientation.”

• cites Bierman et al. 2008bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Family Life Project data show that higher poverty and material hardship predict children's self-regulation, indicated by salivary cortisol and executive function abilities.

“Data from the longitudinal study known as the Family Life Project demonstrate that higher levels of poverty and material hardship predict children’s self-regulation, as indicated by levels of salivary cortisol as well as by executive function abilities (Blair et al. 2011a).”

• cites Blair et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Salivary cortisol levels index children's self-regulation.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Executive function abilities are a valid indicator of children's self-regulation.

The kindergarten Tools trial found effects on stress response physiology, specifically salivary cortisol and alpha amylase, for children in high-poverty schools.

“Effects of the curriculum were also seen on measures of stress response physiology, specifically salivary cortisol and alpha amylase, for children in high-poverty schools”

• cites Blair & Raver 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The REDI project was a randomized controlled trial.

“Another key example of an approach to readiness focused on self-regulation is the randomized controlled trial known as the REDI (REsearch based, Developmentally Informed) project.”

• cites Bierman et al. 2008aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Differences in school readiness for immigrant children can largely be ascribed to lower material and social capital, including a greater likelihood of struggling financially.

“those differences can largely be ascribed to immigrant families’ lower material and social capital, including their greater likelihood to struggle to make ends meet financially (Glick et al. 2010).”

• cites Glick et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Lower sensitive parenting is associated with higher resting or basal cortisol in children.

“Lower sensitive parenting was in turn associated with a higher resting or basal level of cortisol in children”

• cites Blair et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Effects were observed on life outcomes indicative of self-regulation improvements, such as stability in employment and relationships and reduced criminality and incarceration.

“effects were observed on a variety of life outcomes indicative of improvements in self-regulation, such as stability in employment and relationships and reduced criminality and incarceration (Reynolds & Temple 2008).”

• cites Reynolds & Temple 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The negative impact of poverty-related adversity on children's executive function is biologically embedded and mediated by the quality of children's interpersonal relationships with caregivers.

“Evidence for the negative impact of poverty-related adversity on children’s executive function indicates that it is biologically embedded and mediated by the quality of children’s interpersonal relationships with caregivers.”

Pioneering early-intervention studies indicated that high-quality care beginning as early as age 6 months but as late as age 3 or 4 years is associated with increased academic achievement.

“Findings of pioneering early-intervention studies, including the Perry Preschool Project, the Abecedarian Project, and the Chicago Parent-Child Centers, indicated that high-quality care, beginning as early as age 6 months but as late as age 3 or 4 years, is associated with increased academic achievement.”

Parental caregiving partially mediates the effects of poverty on both cortisol and executive function.

“parental caregiving partially mediates the effects of poverty on both cortisol and executive function.”

• cites Blair et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sustained effects on growth in reading and vocabulary were seen for all children into the first grade.

“sustained effects on growth in reading and vocabulary were seen for all children into the first grade.”

• cites Blair & Raver 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

School readiness gaps may be further magnified for young children from families recently immigrating to the United States and for whom English is a second language.

“These gaps may be further magnified for young children from families recently immigrating to the United States and for whom English is a second language (De Feyter & Winsler 2009, Glick et al. 2010).”

• cites De Feyter & Winsler 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Glick et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

REDI self-regulation measures in some instances mediated or moderated the effects of the curriculum on posttest outcomes.

“these measures of self-regulation were found in some instances to mediate or moderate effects of the curriculum on posttest outcomes (Bierman et al. 2008b).”

• cites Bierman et al. 2008bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Higher basal cortisol is associated with lower executive function ability in children at age 3 years.

“which was then associated with a lower executive function ability in children at age 3 years.”

• cites Blair et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Early adversity shapes the self-regulation system in ways that are adaptive for an aversive context but not conducive to adapting to the demands of school.

“early adversity is shaping the self-regulation system in ways that are adaptive for an aversive context but not conducive to a high level of adaptation to the demands of the context of school.”

REDI effects on self-regulation were seen on some measures, including executive function and inhibition.

“Effects on self-regulation were seen on some measures of the construct, including executive function and inhibition”

• cites Bierman et al. 2008bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A large-scale cluster randomized-controlled trial of the kindergarten Tools curriculum found widespread positive effects on children's academic and self-regulation abilities.

“a recently completed large-scale cluster randomized-controlled trial of the kindergarten version of the curriculum found widespread positive effects of the program on children’s academic and self-regulation abilities (Blair & Raver 2015).”

• cites Blair & Raver 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The conditions of poverty are associated with allostatic alterations of stress response physiology in children, as seen through levels of catecholamines and cortisol.

“the conditions of poverty are associated with allostatic alterations of stress response physiology in children, as seen through levels of catecholamines and cortisol.”

In that trial, there were substantial effects (ES = 0.30-0.80) on vocabulary, reasoning, and attention among children in high-poverty schools.

“indicated substantial effects (ES = 0.30–0.80) of the curriculum on vocabulary, reasoning, and attention among children in high-poverty schools as indicated by the percent of children eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.”

• cites Blair & Raver 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Higher poverty is associated with lower sensitive parenting.

“a higher level of poverty was associated with a lower level of prototypically sensitive parenting.”

• cites Blair et al. 2011aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Children in the CSRP treatment group had significantly fewer externalizing behaviors than control children in spring of the Head Start year.

“Children in the treatment group were also reported by their teachers to show significantly fewer externalizing (or aggressive, disruptive, and acting out) behaviors than were children in the control group in the spring of the Head Start year.”

• cites Raver et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Evaluations of dialogic reading show moderate to large effects on child literacy and vocabulary growth in middle-income samples.

“Evaluations of dialogic reading demonstrate moderate to large effects on child literacy and vocabulary growth in middle-income samples (Whitehurst et al. 1988)”

• cites Whitehurst et al. 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A direct executive function measure and an observer rating of task orientation partially mediated REDI effects on early literacy development.

“a direct measure of executive function and an observer rating of children’s orientation to a set of tasks were shown to partially mediate effects of the program on children’s early literacy development.”

• cites Bierman et al. 2008bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A small-scale randomized evaluation of the preschool Tools of the Mind curriculum with English-language learners from Spanish-speaking low-income homes found an effect on executive function measures.

“a small-scale randomized evaluation of the preschool version of Tools with a sample of children who were English-language learners from Spanish-speaking low-income homes found evidence of an effect of the curriculum on executive function measures (A. Diamond et al. 2007)”

• cites A. Diamond et al. 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Chicago School Readiness Project was a randomized controlled trial.

“A primary example of this approach is the randomized controlled trial known as the Chicago School Readiness Project (CSRP).”

• cites Raver et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The CSRP classroom-based intervention led to clear reductions in children's emotional and behavioral difficulty.

“Analyses of the impact of CSRP suggested that this classroom-based intervention led to clear reductions in children’s emotional and behavioral difficulty (Raver et al. 2009).”

• cites Raver et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When targeted through classroom-based intervention, changes in self-regulation lead to socioemotional and academic gains for children facing high poverty-related risk.

“When targeted through classroom-based intervention, changes in self-regulation also lead to socioemotional and academic gains for children facing high poverty-related risk.”

Evaluations of dialogic reading show small to moderate effects in low-income samples.

“and small to moderate effects in low-income samples (Whitehurst et al. 1994).”

• cites Whitehurst et al. 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Language stimulation in the home and in child care prior to school entry can be very low.

“language stimulation in the home and in child care prior to school entry can be very low (Dickinson & Tabors 2001).”

• cites Dickinson & Tabors 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Evaluations indicate that early mathematics instruction strategies are effective in building mathematical knowledge in children at risk for poor school readiness due to poverty.

“Evaluations of these strategies indicate that they are effective in building mathematical knowledge in children at risk for poor school readiness due to poverty (Clements & Sarama 2011).”

• cites Clements & Sarama 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

From the perspective of readiness as self-regulation, these mathematics approaches are effective by introducing an appropriate level of complexity to support children's reasoning and executive function skills.

“From the perspective of readiness as self-regulation, these approaches are effective by introducing an appropriate level of complexity to support children’s reasoning and executive function skills.”