Cited by 184Personality Disorders and PsychopathologyChild Abuse and TraumaPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research

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Early family environments and traumatic experiences associated with borderline personality disorder.

Weaver, Terri L., Clum, George A.·1993·Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

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Abstract

Childhood trauma experiences (e.g., sexual abuse, physical abuse, witnessed violence, and early separation experiences) and family environment characteristics were assessed with a questionnaire from a sample of depressed female inpatients; 17 were diagnosed as having borderline personality disorder (BPD), and 19 received no such diagnosis (NBPD). Significantly more BPD individuals than NBPD individuals reported histories of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessed violence. Of these trauma variables, sexual abuse emerged as the only significant predictor of dimensional BPD score, even after physical abuse, subjective depression score, diagnostic differences between groups, and family environment were controlled. Early separation experiences were nonsignificantly different between groups. Although the BPD families were reported to be distinctive for several different family environment characteristics, the control dimension significantly predicted dimensional borderline score even after sexual abuse was controlled. These results suggest that sexual abuse and general family environment need further study for a fuller understanding of BPD symptomatology.

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Background
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BackgroundMethodInfluential
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MethodInfluential
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“group classification, as well as somatoform and psychological dissociation, trauma composite scores per trauma area (emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical abuse, sexual harassment, and sexual abuse) in three developmental age periods (0-6 years; 7-12 years; 13-18 years) were created ( Weaver & Clum, 1993 ).”
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Self-citation
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“Furthermore, BPD is highly comorbid with other mood and anxiety disorders (Hodges, 2003; Skodol, Gunderson, Pfohl, Widiger, Livesley, & Siever, 2002; Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
Background
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BackgroundMethod
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Background
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BackgroundResult
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“…in particular, but also emotional and physical abuse and neglect (Bryer, Nelson, Miller, & Krol, 1987; Stone, Unwin, Beacham, & Swenson, 1988; Coons, Bowman, Pellow, & Schneider, 1989; Herman, Perry, & van der Kolk, 1989; Ogata, Silk, Goodrich, Lohr, Westen, & Hil, 1990; Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
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“…children or adolescents in the community (Boney-McCoy & Finkelhor, 1995; Cuffe et al., 1998) and two-thirds in psychiatric samples (Cauffman et al., 1998; Neumann et al., 1996; Steiner et al., 1997; Weaver & Clum, 1993; Weine, Becker, Levy, Edell, & McGlashan, 1997) are exposed to severe violence.”
Background
Prospective study of family adversity and maladaptive parenting in childhood and borderline personality disorder symptoms in a non-clinical population at 11 years
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“…linked with borderline personality disorder (BPD) including : abuse and neglect (Guzder et al. 1999; Zanarini et al. 2006), parent hostility and resentment (Hooley & Hoffman, 1999; Johnson et al. 2006) and exposure to domestic violence and parent conflict (Herman et al. 1989 ; Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
Background
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“…those diagnosed with other personality disorders (Paris et al. 1994; Zanarini et al. 2000; Zweig-Frank et al. 1994), depression (Ogata et al. 1990; Weaver and Clum 1993), and various other psychological disorders (Brown and Anderson 1991; Ludolph et al. 1990; Spitzer et al. 2000; Yen et al. 2002).”
Background
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“The role of childhood traumatic experiences contributing to various types of PDs, such as avoidant PD [14], borderline PD [15-17], and antisocial PD [18] has been remarkable.”
Background
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Method
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“However, this relation was not significant for sexual abuse, a finding contrary to previous literature linking sexual abuse and BPD (Johnson et al., 1999; Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
Result
Dialectical Behavior Therapy ‐ Family Skills Training
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“Do BPD and PTSD represent different presentations of the same phenomenon?”
BackgroundInfluential
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“Consistent with the tenets of social baseline theory, adults with BPD often report that caretakers were unavailable or unpredictable in providing emotional support (Gunderson and Lyoo 1997; Weaver and Clum 1993).”
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Background
Child Physical Abuse And Neglect
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“Retrospectively, adults with BPD report more childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, and separation from or loss of a parent than do people with other disorders (Laporte & Guttman, 1996; Weaver & Clum, 1993; Zanarini, 2000).”
Stressful life events and major depressive disorders
Horesh, N., Klomek, A. B., & Apter, A. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.06.008 · Cited by 66
“We chose psychiatric controls as those diagnosed with borderline personality disorder since they are found to have an excess of SLE (Bandelow et al., 2005; Weaver and Clum, 1993) but not necessarily the specific ones that the depressed participants will have.”
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“The Borderline Personality Disorder Severity Index (BPDSI; Dutch version IV, Arntz, 1999; Weaver & Clum, 1993) is a semi-structured interview that contains nine sections and 70 items (Abandonment, 7 items; Relation-ships, 8 items; Self-image, 8 items; Impulsivity, 11 items; Parasuicide, 13 items;…”
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“Second, there was a positive association between BPD and the death of a close family member, which has only been reported in studies involving the death of a parent in childhood [41].”
Background
How childhood maltreatment alters perception and cognition – the predictive processing account of borderline personality disorder
Herzog, P., Κube, T., & Faßbinder, E. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722002458 · Cited by 58
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“psychiatric disorders, but the importance of traumatic experience is particularly prominent in studies of BPD [22–26].”
Background
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“Similarly, women who have been traumatized, either as children or as adults, are likely to have difficulty regulating their emotions and report borderline personality features accordingly (Allen & Farmer, 1996; Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
Background
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Background
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“…as loss and maltreatment may also contribute to the development of BPD (Liotti & Pasquini, 2000; van der Kolk, Hoestetler, Herron, & Fisler, 1994; Weaver & Clum, 1993; Zanarini, 2000), together with dimensions of parenting assessed in adolescence such as intrusiveness and inconsistency…”
Background
Developmental Psychopathology
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“For inclusion in this study a cut-off score of 20 also was used and mean BPDSI (22 out of 30 participants) was 33.96 (SD 8.65), range 22 – 58.”
Influential
Does Childhood Sexual Abuse Cause Borderline Personality Disorder?
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Self-citation
Suicidality in borderline personality disorder.
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“This has led to the developmental hypothesis that BPD may result from traumatic experiences early in life (Weaver and Clum, 1993).”
Background
Interpersonal violence: Expanding the search for long-term sequelae within a sample of battered women
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Self-citation
Neglecting the impact of childhood neglect: A scoping review of the relation between child neglect and emotion regulation in adulthood
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“…a risk factor for BPD (Katerndahl et al., 2005; Linehan, 1993; McLean & Gallop, 2003; Ogata et al., 1990; Soloff, Lynch, & Kelly, 2002; Trull, 2001; Weaver & Clum, 1993; Zanarini et al., 2002), research examining potential protective factors and other influential variables is gaining momentum to…”
Background
Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a high secure forensic learning disability population: future directions for practice
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Different Traumatic Experiences are Associated with Different Pathologies
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“The significant association between child sexual abuse and borderline pathology has repeatedly been demonstrated (31,59,60).”
Background
Autobiographical memory in depressed and nondepressed patients with borderline personality disorder after long‐term psychotherapy
Kremers, I. P., Spinhoven, P., van der Does, W. A. J., & van Dyck, R. (2006) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930500342662 · Cited by 27
“The BPDSI (Arntz et al., 2003, adapted from Weaver & Clum, 1993), a semistructured interview, was administered, to assess the frequency and severity of manifestations of BPD during the last 3 months.”
Method
Elucidating the relationship between borderline personality disorder and intimate partner violence
Munro, O. E., & Sellbom, M. (2020) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1480 · Cited by 26
Familial factors and the risk of borderline personality pathology: genetic and environmental transmission
Fatimah, H., Wiernik, B. M., Gorey, C. M., McGue, M. K., Iacono, W. G., & Bornovalova, M. A. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719001260 · Cited by 30
“It is also consistent with several major etiological theories of BPD that highlight the role of familial environment (Weaver and Clum, 1993; Carr and Francis, 2009) and mother–offspring conflict (Crowell, Baucom et al., 2013).”
Result
A latent profile analysis of childhood trauma in women with bulimia nervosa: Associations with borderline personality disorder psychopathology
Utzinger, L. M., Haukebo, J. E., Simonich, H. K., Wonderlich, S. A., Cao, L., Lavender, J. M., Mitchell, J. E., Engel, S. G., & Crosby, R. D. (2016) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22532 · Cited by 23
The addition of STEPPS in the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder and comorbid borderline personality features: a protocol for a randomized controlled trial
Riemann, G., Weisscher, N., Goossens, P. J. J., Draijer, N., Apenhorst-Hol, M., & Kupka, R. (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-14-172 · Cited by 25
“At baseline all patients will be assessed with the Borderline Personality Severity Index (BPDSI) for severity of borderline symptoms [31], the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) [32] for severity of general psychological symptoms, the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS-SR) [24] for severity of depressive symptoms,…”
Method
The role of emotion dysregulation and alexithymia in the link between types of child abuse and neglect and psychopathology: A moderated mediation model
Krvavac, S., & Jansson, B. (2021) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2021.100213 · Cited by 25
Borderline Personality Disorder and Military Sexual Trauma: Analysis of Previous Traumatization and Current Psychiatric Presentation
Williams, R. C., Holliday, R. P., Clem, M. A., Anderson, E. H., Morris, E. E., & Surís, A. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515596149 · Cited by 22
“This finding is contrary to the research literature (Herman & Van der Kolk, 1987; Jonas et al., 2011; McLean & Gallop, 2003; Paris et al., 1994; Weaver & Clum, 1993; Westphal et al., 2013; Zanarini & Frankenburg, 1997).”
BackgroundResult
Temporary separation from parents in early childhood and serious personality disorders in adult life.
Lahti, M., Pesonen, A., Räikkönen, K., Heinonen, K., Wahlbeck, K., Kajantie, E., Osmond, C., Barker, D., & Eriksson, J. (2012) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2012.26.5.751 · Cited by 22
Anxiety disorders and intimate partner violence: can the association be explained by coexisting conditions or borderline personality traits?
Davoren, M., Kallis, C., González, R. A., Freestone, M. C., & Coid, J. W. (2016) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2016.1172659 · Cited by 21
Psychopharmacology of Human Aggression: Laboratory and Clinical Studies
Cherek, D. R., Tcheremissine, O. V., & Lane, S. D. (2005) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195168761.003.0017 · Cited by 20
Face and gaze perception in borderline personality disorder: An electrical neuroimaging study
Berchio, C., Piguet, C., Gentsch, K., Küng, A., Rihs, T. A., Hasler, R., Aubry, J., Dayer, A. G., Michel, C. M., & Perroud, N. A. (2017) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.08.011 · Cited by 18
Tracing the paths: a systematic review of mediators of complex trauma and complex post-traumatic stress disorder
Harris, J., Loth, E., & Sethna, V. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1331256 · Cited by 18
The Relationship Between Codependency and Borderline and Dependent Personality Traits
Hoenigmann-Lion, N. M., & Whitehead, G. I. (2007) · Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly · doi:10.1300/j020v24n04_05 · Cited by 16
“Interestingly, Weaver and Clum (1993) reported that the borderline pattern is often predicted by early sexual abuse, characteristics not necessarily found in studies of codependency or dependent personality disorder.”
Background
Crossing borders: theory, assessment and treatment in borderline personality disorder
Giesen-Bloo, J. H. (2006) · doi:10.26481/dis.20060908jg · Cited by 16
Affect dysregulation, adult attachment problems, and dissociation mediate the relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder symptoms in adulthood
van Dijke, A., Hopman, J. A. B., & Ford, J. D. (2018) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2017.11.002 · Cited by 15
Co-Occurring Substance Use and Personality Disorders: Current Thinking on Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Straussner, S. L. A., & Nemenzik, J. M. (2007) · Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions · doi:10.1300/j160v07n01_02 · Cited by 15
“Researchers have also found that a history of repeated childhood abuse, particularly sexual abuse, is highly correlated with BPD (Oldham, Skodol, Gallaher, & Kroll, 1996; Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
Background
Prevalence of Personality Disorders Across Veteran Samples: A Meta-Analysis
Edwards, E. R., Tran, H., Wrobleski, J. T., Rabhan, Y., Yin, J., Chiodi, C., Goodman, M. S., & Geraci, J. C. (2022) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2022.36.3.339 · Cited by 14
Differential associations between childhood maltreatment types and borderline personality disorder from the perspective of emotion dysregulation
Yuan, Y., Lee, H., Newhill, C. E., Eack, S. M., Fusco, R. A., & Scott, L. N. (2023) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-023-00210-7 · Cited by 14
Personality Disorder Traits, Trauma, and Risk in Perpetrators of Domestic Violence
Green, K., & Browne, K. D. (2019) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x19826516 · Cited by 14
“When compared with control groups, patients with borderline PD are significantly more likely to report histories of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessing violence (Weaver & Clum, 1993).”
Background
Schizoidia in schizophrenia spectrum and personality disorders: Role of dissociation
Modestin, J., Hermann, S., & Endrass, J. (2007) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.03.003 · Cited by 14
“Sexual abuse has indeed been associated with (borderline) personality disorder (Herman et al., 1989; Weaver and Clum, 1993; Modestin et al., 2005) and with psychotic (Goodman et al.”
Background
Ambiguity, Powerlessness, and the Psychologizing of Trauma
Caplan, P. J. (2006) · Journal of Trauma Practice · doi:10.1300/j189v05n01_02 · Cited by 11
“…1997, 2000; Goodwin, Cheeves, & Connell, 1990; Herman, Perry, & van der Kolk, 1989; Ogata et al., 1990; Surrey, Swett, Michaels, & Levin, 1990; Weaver & Clum, 1993; Zanarini, Gunderson, Marino, Schwartz, & Frankenburg, 1989), and the BPD diagnosis tends to carry extremely pejorative…”
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Dissociation, and Trauma Exposure in Depressed and Nondepressed Veterans
WILKESON, A., Lambert, M. T., & Petty, F. (2000) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-200008000-00005 · Cited by 11
Borderline Personality Disorder
Hooley, J. M., & Masland, S. R. (2017) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1002/9781394258949.ch14 · Cited by 11
Behaviour vs. perception: An investigation into the components of emotional invalidation
Elzy, M. B., & Karver, M. S. (2017) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1403 · Cited by 10
The Externalizing Pathway to Borderline Personality Disorder in Youth
Stepp, S. D., Whalen, D. J., & Pedersen, S. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0591-1_17 · Cited by 10
Post-separation violence:The male perspective
McMurray, A. M. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6238-9_26 · Cited by 10
The impact of childhood trauma on borderline personality organization in a community sample of Greek emerging adults
Malafanti, A., Yotsidi, V., Sideridis, G., Giannouli, E., Galanaki, E. P., & Malogiannis, I. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104181 · Cited by 9
Buffering Effect of Perseverance and Meditation on Depression among Medical Students Experiencing Negative Family Climate
Pongpitpitak, N., Wongpakaran, N., Wongpakaran, T., & Nuansri, W. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10101895 · Cited by 12
“, low warmth, hostility, and punishment [21], less family cohesiveness, more family control and family conflicts [22].”
Background

Authors: Weaver, T. L., & Clum, G. A.
Affiliations: Medical University of South Carolina (US)
ORCID: Weaver, Terri L.
Venue: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1993-12
Volume: 61
Issue: 6
Pages: 1068-1075
ISSN: 0022-006X (ISSN-L)
1939-2117
DOI: 10.1037/0022-006x.61.6.1068
OpenAlex: W2137089344
Cited by: 184
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 4.52
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
Keywords: borderline personality disorder, child sexual abuse, child physical abuse, witnessing violence, family environment, depression, female inpatients
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Borderline Personality Disorder, Child Abuse, Child Abuse, Sexual, Family, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Social Environment, Violence

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Early family environments and traumatic experiences associated with borderline personality disorder.

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