The instructive animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning.

“For example, we found that students who received multiframe illustrations containing verbal descriptions coordinated within each frame were better able to solve transfer problems than students who received illustrations with the same verbal information located within a separate paragraph elsewhere on the page (Mayer,…”

“The contiguity principle is derived from a dual coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Paivio, 1971, 1990).”

“Mayer has devoted his effort on multimedia effect to studying how people learn from animation and narration vs. narration alone or from text and illustrations vs. text alone (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996; Mayer & Moreno, 1998).”

“� Other research ( Mayer and Anderson 1992; Mayer and Sims 1994) has demonstrated that audio/visual instructions may be superior only when the audio and visual information are presented simultaneously rather than sequentially.”

“This provides learners a scaffold for generating appropriate inferences about the cause-effect mechanisms of the system, such as inferring that when someone pushes down on the handle, the inlet valve will close, and the outlet valve will open (Bobek & Tversky, 2016; Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“developed the contiguity principle, which states that “the effectiveness of the computer aided instruction increases when words and pictures are presented contiguously (rather than isolated from o ne another) in time and space” [17].”

“[108] proposed that when text and audio information are presented contiguously to related visuals instead of in isolation, the effectiveness of computer-aided instruction increases.”

“The textual explanation was presented in digitized speech spoken in a female voice and was synchronized with the animation (contiguity principle, Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“…how brakes work was supplemented with line drawings showing the state of the braking system before and after pressing the brake pedal (Mayer, 1989) or when a narration on how brakes work was supplemented by a simultaneous animation showing the changes in the braking system (Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“There is a need for establishing design criteria for animations (Large, 1996; Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“solving tests ( Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992 ).”

“Beyond this, multiple representations can lead to a deeper conceptual understanding and a higher flexibility in problem solving (e.g., Ainsworth, 1999; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Spiro & Jehng, 1990).”

“2018; Clark, Tanner-Smith, and Killingsworth 2016; Mayer and Anderson 1992; Takacs, Swart, and Bus 2015; Theobald 2017).”

“The dual coding theory (Clark and Paivio 1991) and cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer and Anderson 1992; Moreno and Mayer 1999) suggest that multimedia stories have the potential to facilitate the encoding of contextual information in visual and auditory modalities; hence benefiting…”

“For instance, Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) found that simultaneous presentation of multimedia information enhanced transfer of information (i.e. using the information obtained from multimedia presentations to solve related problems) but not retention of important information.”

“Various research groups took advantage of the same basic version of an animation in a series of studies (e.g., de Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, 2007, 2010a, 2010b, 2011; Lowe, 1998, 1999, 2003; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Moreno, 2007, 2009).”

“Specifically, it was found that prior knowledge influences the way given visual information is processed and the degree to which related concepts and information are triggered and connected (ChanLin 1999; Cook 2006; Mayer and Anderson 1992; Seufert 2003).”

“Traditional classroom learning environments have been compared with Webbased courses for cognitive effectiveness, increased computer skills, and self-reported affective outcomes.(12,13) F E A T U R E”

“Research has shown that multimedia messages designed in light of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that are not (e.g., Mayer 2005b; Mayer and Moreno 1999; Mayer 1997; Mayer and Sims 1994; Mayer and Anderson 1991, 1992).”

“Authors have shown that simultaneous, as opposed to sequential, processing of visual and verbal information leads to better performances (e.g., Mayer and Anderson 1992; Mayer and Fiorella 2014; Mayer and Sims 1994).”

“Instead of integrating two sources of visual material, some researchers choose to integrate animation and narration (Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer & Sims, 1994), or auditory information and diagrams (Kalyuga et al., 1999).”

“Table 1 The knowledge domain and type of external graphical representations in CTML-research Depictive with high repleteness: step-bystep drawings of a pump in different states Brakes Mayer and Anderson (1992) Depictive with high repleteness: step-bystep drawings of brakes in different states Lightning Mayer et al. (1…”

“, building connections between corresponding elements of presented information, problem-solving) [41].”

“The educational value of multimedia is dependent upon appropriate inclusion of multimedia supplements to enhance the cognitive impact of the text (Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“The temporal contiguity principle says that when visual information is presented (e.g., animations), information presented in the auditory channel should be presented simultaneously with information in the visual channel, rather than before or after it ( Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992 ).”

“enhanced test performance (Kalyuga, Chandler & Sweller, 1999; Mayer & Anderson, 1991,1992;”

“[30] R.”

“Work by Mayer and his colleagues (e.g., Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) indicates that diagrams can help learners to develop effective mental repre­ sentations of scientific systems by facilitating the cognitive processes required to connect information about a system into a coherent struct…”

“Subtitles, for instance, have been shown to assist listening comprehension (Danan, 2004; Field, 2010; Osada, 2001; Vandergrift, 2011) and images and video clips have additive e ff ects for language learning (Mayer, 2014; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Paivio, 1990).”

“The use of animation as a presentation strategy is particularly helpful when presenting highly abstract or dynamic processes in science and mathematics (DiSessa, 1982; Kaiser, Proffitt & Anderson, 1985; Mayer, 2008; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Rieber, 1990, 1992; Weiss, Knowlton & Morrison, 2002).”

“These effects have been investigated within multimedia environments by Mayer and colleagues, who referred to the negative effects of displaced materials as the spatial and temporal contiguity effects (Mayer & Anderson, 1991 , 1992 ; Moreno & Mayer, 1999 ).”

“As demonstrated by Mayer and associates (Mayer, 2009; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990), visuals can be very helpful to promote comprehension of scienti fi c texts and of technical manuals, where verbal explanations may not suf fi ce to help readers ‘ picture ’ the described concepts or…”

“Using several mediums rather than a single medium allows for more effective storage and processing of information throughout the learning process (Mayer and Anderson, 1992).”

“Although many studies have examined the effects of dual coding on language learning (Paradis, 1978; Paivio & Lambert, 1981; Steffensen et al. 1999; Taura, 1998) and science instruction ( Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Rieber, 1989, 1990, 1991), and other research has investigated the effects of mnem…”

“For instance, Mayer and colleagues (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Moreno & Mayer, 1999) have focused on the ways in which multimedia presentations that include pictures, sounds, and text can help or hinder students'…”

“Multiple perspectives (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1992 ) are presented through problems that require interactive manipulation, sampling, estimation, and interpretation in addition to calculation.”

“Although much has been researched on the effects of different modes of presentation for conveying visual information (e.g. the review by Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Large et al., 1996), the issue of individual differences should be carefully evaluated.”

“Although results vary, test performances with CAI were equal or superior to those obtained with traditional methods including lectures or textbooks (Mayer and Anderson 1992; Bachman et al. 1998; Lynch et al., 2001; Shomaker et al., 2002; Fleming et al., 2003; Seabra et al., 2004; Thatcher, 2006).”

“This principle states that multimedia presentations should use pictures and spoken words rather than pictures and printed words to present the information (Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Mayer, 2009).”

“In a study by Mayer and Anderson (1992), students benefitted the most when pictures and words were presented contiguously, as suggested by the dual coding theory.”

“The present study investigates, amongst other things, whether temporally integrating two referring visual sources of information (i.e., text) also leads to beneficial effects on learning as described by Mayer and his colleagues (Mayer and Anderson 1991; Mayer and Anderson 1992; Mayer and Sims 1994).”

“This result is consistent with previous research claiming that visual information is advantageous in the problem solving process [6, 24, 50, 51].”

“Examples are the working of a bicycle tire pump ( Mayer & Anderson, 1992 ) and the formation of lightning (Mayer & Moreno, 1998).”

“Although many researchers (e.g., Ednerson & Tumey, 1984; Hsia, 1969; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995) found that learning was improved when the information was referentially processed through two channels, some researchers (e.g., Edwardson, Groms, & Pringle, 1976;…”

“Several other studies have similarly demonstrated this principle (e.g., Mayer and Anderson 1992; Moreno and Mayer 1999; Moreno et al. 2001; Mousavi et al. 1995; Tindall-Ford et al. 1997).”

“Mayer and Anderson (1992) have proposed that the instructional design principle called the contiguity principle, which states the effectiveness of multimedia instruction’s increase when words and pictures are presented together in the same time or space (Mayer and Anderson, 1992).”

“…and Jackson (2010) describe, have typically been used by teachers as breaks from the routine of classroom instruction rather than as instructional tools; as a result, less research has focused on such products than their promise has merited (see Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Wood et al., 2010).”

“He has examined how instructional variables such as advance organizers (Mayer, 1982), repetition (Bromage and Mayer, 1986), questions (Sagerman and Mayer, 1987), note taking (Shrager and Mayer, 1989), illustrations (Mayer and Gallini, 1990), and animation (Mayer and Anderson, 1992) influence problem solving in content…”

“Previous research indicates that using verbal and visual information simultaneously improves learning (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…(Mayer, 2009), the so-called multimedia principle (Mayer, 2009) states that visualizations added to text should enhance learning; this has been investigated extensively (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer, 1989; Moreno &Mayer, 2002) and can thus be considered as well-established.”

“The multimedia principle, derived from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, holds that words and relevant visuals lead to greater learning than words alone (e.g., Butcher, 2006; Mayer, 2009; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Sung & Mayer, 2012; see review by Carney & Levin, 2002).”

“Mayer and Anderson (1992) noted that although these two systems are separate and work independently; their interconnections activate each other and thus support a better understanding.”

“These results are consistent with the cognitive load theory, which is based on the concept that there is a limited amount of working memory, and by using both visual and auditory channels, working memory is increased (Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Sweller, 1994; Mayer et al., 2001).”

“Mayer and Anderson (1992) proposed that when text is integrated on the screen close to related visuals, learning is more effective than when they are placed in isolation.”