The instructive animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning.

“For example, we found that students who received multiframe illustrations containing verbal descriptions coordinated within each frame were better able to solve transfer problems than students who received illustrations with the same verbal information located within a separate paragraph elsewhere on the page (Mayer,…”

“The contiguity principle is derived from a dual coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Paivio, 1971, 1990).”

“Forexample, in a series of eight studies carried out in our laboratory at UCSB (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Experiments 1 and 2a; Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer, Moreno, Boire, & Vagge, 1999, Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer & Sims, 1994, Experiments 1 and 2), students performed better on…”

“In our first two studies (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Experiment 2b; Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiment 1) some college students viewed a 30-sec animation depicting changes in a line drawing of a tire pump as the handle was pulled up and pushed down and listened to a concurrent narration using…”

“In another study ( Mayer & Anderson, 1992 ), students studied an animation that depicted the operation of bicycle pumps or automobile brakes along with concurrent narration, successive animation and narration, animation alone, narration alone, or no instruction.”

“Similarly, in two studies involving spoken words and animation in a computer-based environment (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Experiment 2a; Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiment 1), the words-and-pictures group generated a median of 108% more creative solutions than the words-only group, yielding an effect size 2.16.”

“These results also extend previous research on contiguity effects in which students learned better when an animation depicting the workings of a scientific system and the corresponding narration were presented concurrently rather than successively (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“Scoring. As in previous studies ( Mayer & Anderson, 1992 ), we created a list of acceptable responses for each of the four problems.”

“It might be noted, that on the surface, the results of Experiment 3 might appear to contradict those of Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) who found that simultaneous auditory and visual presentation was superior to successive.”

“For example , a mental model of a technical device like a brake can contain information about causal relationships, which are not explicitly included in the corresponding picture of the brake (cf. Mayer & Anderson, 1992 ).”

“…performed better on transfer tests than learners who received words alone (Mayer, 1989, Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Experiment 2a; Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer et al., 1996, Experiment 2; Mayer & Gallini, 1990, Experiments 1, 2, and 3; Moreno & Mayer, 1999,…”

“Such interpretations mesh well with those offered by other researchers with respect to the function of integrated pictures in learning science and mathematics concepts and skills (e.g., Marcus et al., 1996; Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Mayer and Moreno, 1998; Mousavi et al., 1995)—as becomes apparent in the immediately f…”

“…from simultaneous than from successive presentation as measured by superior problem-solving transfer scores (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Experiments 1 and 2a; Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer, Moreno, Boire, & Vagge, 1999, Experiments 1 & 2; Mayer & Sims, 1994, Experiments 1 and 2).”

“Namely, visualization and difficult translations need the establishment of referential connections between verbal and nonverbal systems ( Mayer & Anderson, 1992 ).”

“…the concept of dual-coding (i.e., separate information processing channels for auditory and visual material) with names like “dual-coding model” (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992) and “dual-processing model of multimedia learning” or “dual-processing theory of working memory” (Mayer & Moreno,…”

“Such exclusive direction of attention would probably also prejudice learners' capacities to build the connections between various parts of the display that are necessary for relating the individual fragments of information into a coherent, meaningful whole (cf. Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“An effectively prepared PPT can not only be graphically impressive, but also worthwhile in terms of creating interest among the students (Mayer and Anderson, 1992).”

“This format has been shown to be effective in fostering student understanding as indicated by performance on problem-solving transfer questions ( Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Moreno & Mayer, 1999).”

“The theoretical rationale for these three features of summaries can be found in a cognitive theory of multimedia learning ( Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer et al., 1995), which is based on elements of dual-coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1990), cognitive-load theory (Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Swe…”

“What Mayer and colleagues call the contiguity effect (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992) is a form of temporal split attention.”

“As well as this spatial version of the effect, Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) demonstrated a temporal version.”

“The computer-based animation and narration lasted for approximately 50 s and was identical to that used by Mayer and Anderson (1992).”

“proposed the contiguity principle, which states that: the effectiveness of the computer aided instruction increases when words and pictures are presented contiguously (rather than isolated from one another) in time and space [Mayer and Anderson 1992].”

“…advantage for memory (e.g., Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) and an overwhelming and consistent advantage for deep comprehension (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) when students receive a multimedia (verbal and visual) presentation as opposed to a text-only…”

“Mayer et al. (Mayer, 1989a, 1993; Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Mayer and Gallini, 1990) investigated the applications of dual coding theory to the design of explanatory diagrams for science learning.”

“Over the past 30 years, the name has changed from “ model of meaningful learning ” (Mayer, 1989) to “ dual ‐ coding model ” (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992) or “ dual ‐ processing model ” (Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer, Moreno, Boire, & Vagge, 1999) to “ generative theory ” (Mayer, 1997; Mayer et al.,…”

“In order for this integration to be successful, the visual information has to be held in visual working memory at the same time as the verbal information is held in verbal working memory, a condition which Mayer and Anderson (1992) refer to as contiguity effect.”

“…brakes, pumps, or lungs in which the animation and narration were simultaneous or successive (Mayer and Anderson, 1991, experiments 1 and 2a; Mayer and Anderson, 1992, experiments 1 and 2; Mayer and Sims, 1994, experiments 1 and 2; Mayer, Moreno, Boire, and Vagge, 1999, experiments 1 and 2).”

“…with aligning images and text spatially (e.g., Hegarty & Just, 1989; Moreno & Mayer, 1999) and synchronizing their presentation temporally (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994), both of which should reduce the length of time that information must be maintained in working…”

“The two systems operate independently but interconnections between the two systems trigger activity in the other, thus promoting the creation of coherent mental images of the story (Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“Mayer (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994) described a theory of multi-media learning, which showed that students gainbetterproblemsolvingandconceptualknowledgewhentheyarepresentedwith both text and pictures.”

“…how a bicycle tire pump works while also viewing a corresponding animation generated 50% more useful solutions to subsequent problem-solving transfer questions than did students who viewed the animation before or after listening to the narration (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“Studies by Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) and Mayer and Sims (1994) found that animation did help college students learn about mechanical concepts when measured by a creative problem solving post-test.”

“…information by scrolling through multiple texts (Coiro & Dobler, 2007) and integrating textual, graphic, and multimedia information, (Mayer, 2002; Mayer & Anderson, 1992) to constructing representations of the interrelations between sources (Perfetti, Rouet, & Britt, 1999; Stahl et al., 1996).”

“The studies involved comparisons between animation presented simultaneously with corresponding narration versus animation followed by or preceded by narration for computer-based explanations of how lightning storms develop (Mayer & Moreno, 1998a, Experiment 4), how bicycle tire pumps work (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Expe…”

“These results need to be integrated with those of Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) and Mayer and Sims (1994), who found that dual-modality instructions were superior only when the audio and visual components were presented simultaneously rather than sequentially.”

“That is best depicted in temporal contiguity in order to permit learners Table 2 Group means and standard deviations (in brackets) of test scores and cognitive load measures to more easily make important connections (see Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992).”

“This article is available at DigitalCommons@ILR: https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/articles/412”

“…experiments involving multimedia explanations of pumps (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiment 1), brakes (Mayer & Anderson, 1992, Experiment 2; Mayer & Sims, 1994, Experiment 1; Mayer Moreno, Boire, & Vagge, 1999, Experiment 2), lightning (Mayer et al.,…”

“Another set of experiments in 1991 and 1992 with Anderson, considered the use of animations to help students understand scienti"c explanations (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992).”

“…interactions among text, graphic and individual variables have been conducted by Mayer and his collaborators (Mayer, 1984; Mayer, 1989; Mayer and Gallini, 1990; Mayer and Anderson, 1991; Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Mayer, 1993a; 1993b; Mayer and Sims 1994; Mayer et al ., 1995; Mayer et al ., 1996).”

“Creative problem solving and recognition were also higher when an auditory, explanative narration was synchronized with an explanative animation or movie than when the narration preceded or followed the animation (Baggett, 1984; Baggett & Ehrenfeucht, 1983; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992).”

“Animations generally are thought to enhance understanding of dynamic processes (e.g. Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Moreno, 2002; but see Hegarty, Kriz & Cate, 2003).”

“…might not be sufÞcient to improve student understanding (Hubscher-Younger & Narayanan, 2003; Rieber, 1990) and different instructional methods employing animations to promote understanding have been considered (Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Moreno, 2002; Vermaat, Kramers-Pals, & Schank, 2003).”

“than a few seconds (Baggett, 1984; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“Simultaneous, linked representations also support development of multilevel mental models (Buckley, Gobert, Horwitz, & O'Dwyer, 2010; Horwitz, Gobert, Buckley, & O'Dwyer, 2010; Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“There are serious theoretical and cognitive arguments in favor of greater effectiveness of animated rather than static images, and corresponding principles for designing and using animation in instruction (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Reed, 2005; Rieber, 1990; Weiss, Knowlton, & Morrison, 2002).”

“…has also examined the potential benefit of animation and audio in multimedia environments, with some research finding that simultaneous animation and audio narration is more effective than either alone or noncurrent audio nar- ration and animation (Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“…suggesting that the display effectiveness in multimedia learning lessons increased when words and pictures were presented contiguously in time or space, even though his lightning materials contained text that scrolls at the bottom of the screen, separate from the animation (Mayer & Anderson, 1992).”

“Therefore, people learn better from animations if these are accompanied by an aural commentary that is presented simultaneously with the animation than if these are accompanied by written text or commentary that is not presented simultaneously (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”