The DOI matches its Crossref record; 168 of the 168 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Understanding instructions.
Open accessAbstract
The understanding of instructions was explored within the context of cognitive load theory.Instructional material may be difficult to understand if it consists of many elements that must be held in working memory simultaneously.If the number of elements that must be processed exceeds working-memory capacity, then some elements must be combined into schemas before the material can be understood.Some diagrams may reduce cognitive load by providing such a schema.In Experiments 1 to 4, three different electrical resistor problems were given to students to complete, with instructions presented using diagrams (which cue pre-existing schemas) or text.In Experiment 5, four different angle construction tasks were given to students to complete.Instructions were presented using either diagrams which cue pre-existing schemas, diagrams which were unlikely to cue pre-existing schemas, or text.Results, including measures of cognitive load, suggested that understanding depends on the degree of interaction among elements of information.However, if interacting elements can be incorporated into a diagrammatic schema by modifying the instructional presentation mode, cognitive load will be reduced and understanding enhanced.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“A second example involves Marcus et al. (1996), who use the original formula by Paas and van Merrie ¨nboer in which the absolute value of M -P was taken and who nonetheless state that this value can be negative or positive.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Marcus et al. (1996)
In the citing paper
“Simultaneously performing the tasks and studying the information would almost certainly cause cognitive overload (Kester et al., 2001;Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996).”
From Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning (2003) · cites this paper as Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996
In the citing paper
“the researchers found that instruction via diagram (a schema facilitating instructional technique) was of most benefit for the higher element interactivity problems.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Marcus, et al. (1996)
In the citing paper
“Difficult to understand material is difficult precisely because it is high in element interactivity and imposes a heavy load on working memory”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Marcus, Cooper & Sweller, 1996
In the citing paper
“As a consequence, they impose a high, intrinsic cognitive load because many elements must be processed in working memory simultaneously.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Marcus, Cooper & Sweller, 1996
In the citing paper
“as the degree of interactivity between the elements increased so did the cognitive burden placed on working memory.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Marcus, et al. (1996)
In the citing paper
“When intrinsic load is high, research from a variety of domains indicates that the manner in which instructions are formatted is critical to the processes of schema acquisition and automation.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Marcus et al., 1996
In the citing paper
“in this situation instructional techniques that reduce extraneous load or increase the processing power of working memory positively impact upon learning.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Marcus et al., 1996
Citations
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Self-citationREMEMBERING: A STUDY IN EXPERIMENTAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Bartlett, F. C., & Burt, C. (1933) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1933.tb02913.x · Cited by 7,475
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335
Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216
(1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,051
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
Toward a model of text comprehension and production.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. (1978) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.85.5.363 · Cited by 5,298
Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices*
Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2 · Cited by 5,248
Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach
Paivio, A. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 5,087
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–243 of 243
Cognitive load theory: researching and planning teaching to maximise learning
Szulewski, A., van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2022) · Researching Medical Education · doi:10.1002/9781119839446.ch27 · Cited by 3
Self-citationDarejeh, A., Marcus, N., Mohammadi, G., & Sweller, J. (2026) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/00187208261427867 · Cited by 51
Self-citationInfluence of Multimedia and Cognitive Strategies in Deep and Surface Verbal Processing
Zheng, R. Z. (2022) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-5682-8.ch012 · Cited by 2
Toward a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Assessment (CTMMA)
Kirschner, P. A., Park, B., Malone, S., & Jarodzka, H. M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17461-7_53 · Cited by 2
Yu, Z. (2022) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-4511-2.ch020 · Cited by 2
Nonprobative Photos Inflate the Truthiness and Falsiness of Claims
Newman, E. J. (2013) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17003764.v1 · Cited by 2
Testing the testing effect with advanced materials while accounting for individual differences
Redifer, J. L., Myers, S. J., Bae, C. L., Naas, A., & Scott, A. (2026) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09758-z · Cited by 2
Andini, F. R., Rochmah, T. N., Makalew, L. A., Dewi, M. S., & Bilqis, N. (2022) · Jurnal Aisyah Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan · doi:10.30604/jika.v8i1.1373 · Cited by 1
Wilson, R., Sansgiry, S., Sawant, R., Johnson, M. L., Sansgiry, S., & Essien, E. (2024) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2024.04.007 · Cited by 1
Kühlwein, F., Merk, S., Schneider, J. M., & Schmidt, K. A. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102179 · Cited by 1
Intelligent Interactive Tutor for Rural Indian Education System
Toshniwal, O., & Yammiyavar, P. G. (2013) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37463-0_17 · Cited by 2
Supporting Decision-Making in the Battlefield: Utility of Multimedia Information Transmission
Scielzo, S., & Greenwood-Ericksen, A. (2003) · Human performance in extreme environments · doi:10.7771/2327-2937.1033 · Cited by 1
Kanenishi, K., Mendori, T., Sawamatsu, M., & Yano, Y. (2002) · IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering (MSE) · doi:10.1109/mmse.2000.897196 · Cited by 1
The Element Interactivity Effect
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_15 · Cited by 1
Self-citationWorld Class STEM - Benchmarking and Delivering based on Evidence Based Cognitive Science
Paul, M. S. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering · doi:10.1109/tale52509.2021.9678899 · Cited by 1
Eldeib, H. K., Abbassi, M., & Sabry, N. A. (2024) · Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis · doi:10.1002/mcda.1834 · Cited by 1
A Brief Evaluation of an Interpretive, Self-Guided Mobile Tour
Britt, R. K. (2017) · Journal of Interpretation Research · doi:10.1177/109258721702200206 · Cited by 1
Chen, F., Zhou, J. J., Wang, Y., Yu, K., Arshad, S. Z., Khawaji, A., & Conway, D. (2016) · Human-computer interaction series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31700-7_2 · Cited by 1
Ganier, F. (2010) · InfoDesign - Revista Brasileira de Design da Informação · doi:10.51358/id.v1i1.1 · Cited by 1
Computer Based Training and Multimedia Design: The Role of Spatial Aptitudes in Learning
Scielzo, S., Fiore, S. M., Dahan, Y., Lopez, J., & Stafford, S. (2006) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193120605001205 · Cited by 1
Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.007 · Cited by 3
Biard, N. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c8d8f2b0z2876z4fb6z84b5zeda099aed16e · Cited by 1
Kilgore, R. M., & Godwin, J. A. (2010) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193121005402727
Newton, L. A. A., Leslie, R., Smith, M., & Davis, J. (2010) · ACS Chemical Health & Safety · doi:10.1016/j.jchas.2009.10.001
The Research of Cognitive Load in the Virtual Maintenance Training
Yu, C., Liu, W., & Yang, G. H. (2012) · Advanced materials research · doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.591-593.635
Teaching Digital Natives Using Technology
Dee, M. (2012) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-2181-7.ch011
김수연, & 이경랑 (2013) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.17936/pkelt.2013.25.2.006
The Role of Information in Inquiry-Based Learning in a Remote Lab on Optical Spectrometry
Thoms, L., & Girwidz, R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96184-2_12
RyuJeeheon (2014) · The Korean Journal of Educational Methodology Studies · doi:10.17927/tkjems.2014.26.1.115
(2013) · Presses Universitaires de France eBooks · doi:10.3917/puf.ganie.2013.01.0125
Neue Medien unter lernpsychologischen Aspekten
(2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-34091-1_20
Renkl, A. (1997) · Deutscher Universitätsverlag eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-663-08696-3_9
Reducing violence through the seed of greatness youth programme in Empangeni
Mthabela, H. S. (2023) · DUT Open Scholar (Durban University of Technology) · doi:10.51415/10321/5065
Visual Literacy: More Than "A Pretty Picture"
Terry, A., & Richardson, L. (2023) · Scope Contemporary Research Topics (Learning and Teaching) · doi:10.34074/scop.4012009
College Students' Ability/Inability to Follow Directions
Smudde, P. M. (2024) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-0868-4.ch012
البقمي, ف. ب. م. ب. م., & الجبر, ج. ب. م. ب. د. (2025) · Maǧallaẗ Kulliyyaẗ Al-Tarbiyyaẗ Bil-Manṣūraẗ · doi:10.21608/maed.2025.424814
Erlebach, S. (2026) · Lecture notes in information systems and organisation · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-08486-6_13
Bentley, A. B., & Becker, L. L. (2026) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2026.2685595
Kühlwein, F., Merk, S., Schneider, J., & Schmidt, K. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102427
Effects of Instructional Guidance on Modeling Causal Loop Diagrams in Climate Change Education
Tuncel, N., Beege, M., & Rieß, W. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16081326
Morgan, H., & Stafford, A. (2026) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/09639284.2026.2737098
The Role of “Understanding” in Human Cognitive Architecture: A Cognitive Load Theory Perspective
Chen, O., Marcus, N., & Sweller, J. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10233-5
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Marcus, N., Cooper, M., & Sweller, J.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 1996-03
- Volume
- 88
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 49-63
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W4214825932
- Cited by
- 244
- References
- 160
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 4.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney)
- Funders
- University of New South Wales
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- instruction understanding, cognitive load theory, working memory capacity, schemas, diagrams, text-based teaching, information interaction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
