The DOI matches its Crossref record; 18 of the 18 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Effects of control and predictability on the physical and psychological well-being of the institutionalized aged.
Abstract
It was hypothesized that some of the characteristics frequently observed among the aged--such as feelings of depression and helphlessness, as well as accelerated physical decline--are at least in part attributable to loss of control. A field experiment in which institutionalized aged were randomly assigned to one of four conditions was carried out to assess the effects of increased control and predictability upon the physical and psychological well-being of the aged. Individuals in three of the four conditions were visited by college undergraduates under varying contingencies, while persons in the fourth condition were not visited and served as a baseline comparison group. Subjects in the control condition could determine both the frequency and duration of visits they recieved. A second group of subjects (predict) was informed when they would be visited and how long the visitor would stay, but had no control over these details. A third group (random) was visited on a random schedule. It was found that predictable and controllable positive events have a powerful positive impact upon the well-being of the institutionalized aged.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Thirteen out of 15 (87%) interventions categorised as having a theoretical basis reported beneficial effects on at least one outcome domain [13,53-55,59,65,67-69,73-75,81] compared with 10/17 (59%) studies categorised as having no theoretical basis [52,56,60,63,66,70,71,76,78,79].”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“This compares with five out of 11 (45%) one-to-one interventions [59,71,78,79,81].”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“No significant differences were observed between the two intervention groups, or between the two control groups.”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“The intervention groups also reported improved hope and happiness, and reported a smaller increase in the quantity of medication taken per day in comparison with control participants.”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“Two of the three studies at high risk of bias [59,78,80] reported significant improvements in the extracted outcomes.”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“At two months, in comparison with the control groups (receiving random visits and no visits), intervention participants (controlling frequency/duration of visits, and advance notice of visits) reported more activity, a greater amount of time spent in active pursuits and planned more activities for the coming week.”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“All interventions delivered by counsellors [53,54,73] and by students [59,66,71,78] reported at least one beneficial effect”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
In the citing paper
“Three out of five (60%) home visiting interventions led to beneficial effects [59,71,78]”
From Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review (2011) · cites this paper as [59]
Citations
Cites
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835
Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress.
Averill, J. R. (1973) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0034845 · Cited by 1,570
Hospitalism; an inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood.
Spitz, R. A. (1945) · PubMed · Cited by 1,563
Unpredictable and Uncontrollable Aversive Events
Seligman, M. E. P., Maier, S. F., & Solomon, R. L. (1971) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-137950-6.50011-0 · Cited by 457
Depression and learned helplessness.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1974) · Cited by 431
Smiling, cooing, and "the game."
Watson, J. S. (1972) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · Cited by 408
Animals Respond for Food in the Presence of Free Food
Neuringer, A. J. (1969) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.166.3903.399 · Cited by 296
Roth, S., & Kubal, L. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.4.680 · Cited by 249
The heterosexual affectional system in monkeys.
Harlow, H. F. (1962) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0043587 · Cited by 208
Rats' Preference for Earned in Comparison with Free Food
Carder, B., & Berkowitz, K. (1970) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.167.3922.1273 · Cited by 179
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 522
Anxiety in Older Adults across Care Settings
Shead, V. L., Rodriguez, R. L., Dreeben, S. J., & McBride, S. A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139087469.010 · Cited by 2
Coriell, M., & Adler, N. E. (2001) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.cp070424 · Cited by 2
Predictability and Control in Relationships: A Perspective from Animal Behavior
Rajecki, D. W. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5044-9_2 · Cited by 2
Discrimination Based on Age: The Special Case of the Institutionalized Aged
Altman, W., & Parmelee, P. A. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4038-7_20 · Cited by 2
Clients Nearing Death: Behavioral Treatment Perspectives
Rebok, G., & Hoyer, W. (1980) · The Final Transition · doi:10.2190/14da-pbgf-1qa2-386l · Cited by 1
Differences in Person-Environment Congruence between Microenvironments
Nehrke, M. F., Morganti, J. B., Cohen, S., Hulicka, I. M., Whitbourne, S. K., Turner, R. R., & Cataldo, J. F. (1984) · Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement · doi:10.1017/s0714980800004712 · Cited by 2
Nurses' Evaluations of Patient Attributions for the Cause and Future of Their Illness1
Allen, A. (1990) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01470.x · Cited by 2
Kontrolltheorien – Die Sehnsucht der Kunden nach Kontrolle
Raab, G., Unger, A., & Unger, F. (2010) · Gabler eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-8349-6314-7_18 · Cited by 2
Designing Alzheimer's Special Care Facilities That Includes Consideration For The Islamic Culture
Obeidat, A. M. (2008) · ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) · Cited by 2
My Life in Research: From Theory to Policy in 40 Years
Schulz, R. (2017) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2016.12.011 · Cited by 2
Self-citation(1981) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-129840-1.50022-3 · Cited by 2
Overmier, J. B., & Molet, M. (2013) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0112 · Cited by 2
Chapter Eleven Power, Control and Well-Being of the Elderly: A Critical Reconstruction
Fry, P. S., Slivinske, L. R., & Fitch, V. L. (1988) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60985-1 · Cited by 2
Neto, F. F. M. (2000) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.2000.91.1.115 · Cited by 1
Psychological Aspects of Health and Illness in the Elderly
Gidron, Y. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18893-1_8 · Cited by 1
Problematising expressives: The case of magical affirmations in the pick-up artist paradigm
Dayter, D., & Rüdiger, S. (2025) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2025.03.005 · Cited by 2
Impacto do Disclosure no Risco e no Valor das Companhias Brasileiras de Capital Aberto
Silva, V. P., & Muntaser, J. G. S. (2020) · Management in Perspective · doi:10.14393/mip-v1n1-2020-46836
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0001 · Cited by 1
Education and life in the long-stay ward
Jones, S. (1991) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-3380-5_10 · Cited by 1
Resultaat van de Verzorgingsstaat: leefbaarheid en gelijkheid
Veenhoven, R. (1990) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 1
Learned Helplessness and the Elementary Student: Implications for Counselors.
Greer, J. G., & Wethered, C. E. (1987) · Elementary school guidance and counseling · Cited by 1
Choice-Based DiscriminationPreprint
Katz, T. K. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2186128 · Cited by 1
Habituation Theory and Environment-Aging Research: Ennui to Joie De Vivre?
Norris-Baker, C., & Scheidt, R. J. (1989) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/928t-njk9-142r-ay06 · Cited by 1
Schiamberg, B. L., & Abler, W. (1988) · Adult Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0001848188038002016 · Cited by 1
A profile of mood in ambulatory nursing home residents
Gueldner, S. H., Butler, S., Ray, J. K., Ricketts, J. L., & Schlotzhauer, P. (1994) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/0883-9417(94)90030-2 · Cited by 1
PROTECTIVE SERVICES FOR THE ELDERLY: Do We Deal Competently with Incompetence?
Parmelee, P. A. (1980) · Law & Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9930.1980.tb00223.x · Cited by 1
Dementia (Alzheimer’s Disease)
Mulsant, B. H., & Rosen, J. (1994) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1456-9_2 · Cited by 1
A Test of Two Models of Controllability in Institutionalized Older Adults.
Irion, J. C. (1988) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_disstheses.4573 · Cited by 1
Chapter Nine Loss of Control Among the Aging?: A Critical Reconstruction
Gergen, M. (1988) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60983-8 · Cited by 1
Alzheimer’s Disease: Biological Aspects
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0002 · Cited by 1
Robinson, S. A., & Lachman, M. E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22009-9_103 · Cited by 1
Merriam, A. E., & Aronson, M. K. (1988) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1988.tb05795.x · Cited by 1
Group Leader-Are you a controller?
Tappen, R. M., & Touhy, T. A. (1983) · Journal of Gerontological Nursing · doi:10.3928/0098-9134-19830101-07 · Cited by 1
Psychosocial Response to Environment Change
Fields, R. B. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0694-6_20 · Cited by 1
The Structure of Cultural Orientations to the Good Life and their Expression in Personal Narratives
Bonn, G. B. (2012) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e507332013-001 · Cited by 1
Putting the Gold Back in the Golden Years
Birk, D. M. (1996) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9826-5_20 · Cited by 1
Wells, D. L. (1987) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6414-0_23
Patterns of convictions and burnout
Maciuszek, J. (2006) · Jagiellonian University Repository (Jagiellonian University)
Well-Being: Differences Among Married, Widowed and Divorced Older Persons.
Wilson, K. B., & DeShane, M. R. (1980)
Affective Forecasting: the Effects of Immune Neglect and Surrogation
Burkman, S. D. (2012) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc149566
Porter, M. (1994) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa)
Mindful Health and the Power of Possibility
Hogan, M. (2014) · doi:10.1002/9781118294895.ch29
Il carico cognitivo della decisione d’acquisto
Misuraca, R., Carmeci, F. A., & Pravettoni, G. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-88-470-1374-2_4
Psychological factors jn the relocation of the aged
Thomas, T. (1990) · Urban Policy and Research · doi:10.1080/08111149008551414
UPSWING: DEVELOPMENT OF A WORKSHOP FOR LONG‐TERM‐CARE STAFF RESPONSIBLE FOR RESIDENTS’ COUNCILS
Davis, B. W. (1992) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/0360127920180705
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH OF THE AGED IN INSTITUIONAL CARE
Thomas, T. (1989) · Australian Journal on Ageing · doi:10.1111/j.1741-6612.1989.tb00775.x
Caring for older homebound adults: A chronic illness perspective
Folden, S. L. (1989) · Journal of Home Health Care Practice · doi:10.1177/108482238900200108
Sun, H. (2014) · Scholarship@Western (Western University)
Psychotherapy for Medicare Patients: Can Psychologists Do the Job?
Sparacino, J., & Ronchi, D. (1982) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.50.3c.1103
Niedernhuber, J. (2015) · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · doi:10.5283/epub.31663
Learned helplessness among the institutionalized elderly: a pilot study.
Brown, M. M., Cornwell, J., Kelleher, E., & Weist, J. K. (1981) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.3109/01612848109141031 · Cited by 1
Self-esteem of elderly women in two different settings
Jensen, L. (1988) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Stress, Appraised Control, and Salivary Immunoglobulin A
Farley, C. J. (2010) · Anglia Ruskin Research Online (Anglia Ruskin University)
Fatemi, S. M. (2014) · Journal of Psychology & Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.15406/jpcpy.2014.01.00016
THE WORTH OF A HUMAN LIFE: A FOCUS ON THE FRAIL AGED
Seedsman, T. A. (1994) · Australian Journal on Ageing · doi:10.1111/j.1741-6612.1994.tb00650.x
Society Meet the Needs of Its Elderly
Kane, R. L., & Kane, R. A. (1980)
Reid, D. W., & Stirling, G. (1988) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60982-6
Overcontrol in Retirement Communities
Lapsley, J. N. (2001) · Pastoral Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1010301617923
Chapter One Preconceptions of Vulnerability and Controls in Old Age: A Critical Reconstruction;
Fry, P. S. (1988) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60975-9
Syrkiewicz, R. (2006) · Australasian Journal of Paramedicine
Johnson, R. M. (2008) · University of Florida Digital Collections (University of Florida)
Le travail et la vie en residence
Simard, A. (1999) · doi:10.1522/11962916
Hopelessness in the Institutionalized Elderly
Hansen, J. (1986) · Open PRAIRIE (South Dakota State University)
Card, J. A., & Schweer, J. M. (1989)
Cross-Becker, C. M. (1993) · The Mathematics Enthusiast
5 Mental Models, and Learned Helplessness: An Anatomy of Control Loss
Kofta, M. W. (1993)
The Psychology of Possibilities: Extending the Limits of Human Functioning
Ngnoumen, C. T., & Langer, E. J. (2015) · doi:10.1057/9781137479969_18
Treatment of the Chronically III Geriatric Patient
Levy, S. M. (1981) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-565960-4.50021-7
Rotheram‐Borus, M. J., & Corby, N. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-025965-9.50016-8
Kim, Y. S., Park, S. B., Kim, K. W., Oh, B.-K., & Hossan (2008) · Journal of the Korean Society for Aviation and Aeronautics
Clark, D. M. T. (2016) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2016.1062
Kassem, M. S. (2017) · The Sydney eScholarship Repository (The University of Sydney)
Cross-Becker, C. M. (1993)
Chapter Thirteen Creating Psychological and Societal Dependency in Old Age
Hendricks, J. A., & Leedham, C. A. (1988) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60987-5
Gesundheitsrisiko Vereinsamung im Alter
Wettstein, A., Dyntar, D., & Kälin, M. (2014) · Swiss Medical Forum ‒ Schweizerisches Medizin-Forum · doi:10.4414/smf.2014.02118
Nosek, M. A., & Holmes, S. A. (1996) · Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s1047-9651(18)30407-8
Amyx, D. (1995) · SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University)
Kida, G. (2018) · Journal for Perspectives of Economic Political and Social Integration · doi:10.2478/pepsi-2018-0009
Adjustment to relocation to an assisted living facility
Drozdick, L. W. (2003) · doi:10.33915/etd.1822
Robinson, S. A., & Lachman, M. E. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_103-1
Cao, C. (2019) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Resilience, Selfhood, and Creativity
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0005
Types of Care and the Role of Spirituality
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0006
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0007
People with Alzheimer’s Disease and the Social World
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0004
Alzheimer’s Disease: The Subjective Experience
Sabat, S. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190603106.003.0003
The Psychology of Inner Peace: Discovering Heartfulness
Fatemi, S. M. (2021)
Munson, P. A. (1988) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)60981-4
(2014) · Le Point Sur. Psychologie · doi:10.3917/dbu.alaph.2014.01.0145
Paquet, G. (2005) · Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pum.14449
Kontrolltheorien — Die Sehnsucht der Kunden nach Kontrolle
Raab, G., & Unger, F. (2005) · Gabler Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-322-94472-6_18
Kontrolltheorien – Die Sehnsucht der Kunden nach Kontrolle
Raab, G., Unger, A., & Unger, F. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-02067-5_18
Metadata
- Authors
- Schulz, R.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schulz, Richard
- ORCID
- Schulz, Richard
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1976
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 563-573
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2083832951
- Cited by
- 522
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 21.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Aging, Health, and Disability
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Geriatrics and Gerontology › Geriatric Care and Nursing Homes
- Keywords
- older adults, loss of control, predictability, well-being, depression, helplessness, physical decline, psychological well-being, physical well-being
- MeSH terms
- Activities of Daily Living, Adaptation, Psychological, Aged, Female, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Residential Facilities, Retirement, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
