Cited by 580Health disparities and outcomesPublic Health and Social InequalitiesCognitive Abilities and Testing

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 186 of the 189 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Intelligence: is it the epidemiologists’ elusive “fundamental cause” of social class inequalities in health?

Gottfredson, Linda S.·2004·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Virtually all indicators of physical health and mental competence favor persons of higher socioeconomic status (SES). Conventional theories in the social sciences assume that the material disadvantages of lower SES are primarily responsible for these inequalities, either directly or by inducing psychosocial harm. These theories cannot explain, however, why the relation between SES and health outcomes (knowledge, behavior, morbidity, and mortality) is not only remarkably general across time, place, disease, and kind of health system but also so finely graded up the entire SES continuum. Epidemiologists have therefore posited, but not yet identified, a more general "fundamental cause" of health inequalities. This article concatenates various bodies of evidence to demonstrate that differences in general intelligence (g) may be that fundamental cause.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.174

Cites

186 of 186 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Klitgaard, R. E., & Gardner, H. (1984) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.2307/3324560 · Cited by 13,639
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
Hammer, T. H., Anderson, J. F., Gurdon, M. A., Jick, T. D., Petit, A., Stern, R. N., Schwartz, H., Vardi, Y., & Dunnette, M. D. (1977) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2391755 · Cited by 11,947
"General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured
Spearman, C. (1904) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1412107 · Cited by 6,207
Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. (1995) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2626958 · Cited by 5,722
Social Learning Theory and the Health Belief Model
Rosenstock, I. M., Strecher, V. J., & Becker, M. H. (1988) · Health Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/109019818801500203 · Cited by 5,564
Human Error
Reason, J. (1990) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139062367 · Cited by 5,108
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Cooper, T. (1976) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/141.8.521 · Cited by 4,617
The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings.
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.124.2.262 · Cited by 4,180
Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies
Carroll, J. B. (1993) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571312 · Cited by 4,121
The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.
Preston, S. H., Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. A. (1995) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.2307/2137757 · Cited by 4,027

Show all 189 references

Research works printed but not linked: 16

Brody, 1992, Intelligence
Davis, 1996, How poor literacy leads to poor health care., Patient Care, 30, 94
Dutton, 1989, Overview, methodological critique, and reformulation., 29
Gottfredson, 1996, What do we know about intelligence?, The American Scholar, 15
Gottfredson, 2000, Intelligence., Vol. 2, 1359
Jensen, 1978, Genetic and behavioral effects of nonrandom mating., 51
Jovanovic-Peterson, 1999, A touch of diabetes: A straightforward guide for people who have Type 2 diabetes
Maller, 1933, Vital indices and their relation to psychological and social factors., Human Biology, 5, 94
Murray, 1997, IQ and economic success., The Public Interest, 21
Olneck, 1977, On the use of sibling data to estimate the effects of family background, cognitive skills, and schooling., 125
Plomin, 2001, Behavioral genetics
Reich, 1992, The work of nations.
10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.262 · DOI · Paper page
Spearman, 1927, The abilities of man.
Taylor, 1991, Health psychology
Wilkinson, 1993, WRAT-3 administration manual.

Sorted by citations

Items 301–400 of 579

Predictors of success and quality of life in people with borderline intelligence: The special school label, personal and social resources
Szumski, G., Firkowska‐Mankiewicz, A., Lebuda, I., & Karwowski, M. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12458 · Cited by 15
The association of externalizing and internalizing problems with indicators of intelligence in a sample of at-risk children
Kavish, N., Helton, J. J., Vaughn, M. G., & Boutwell, B. B. (2020) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2020.101448 · Cited by 15
Infant SES as a Predictor of Personality—Is the Association Mediated by Intelligence?
Flensborg‐Madsen, T., & Mortensen, E. L. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103846 · Cited by 14
“However, we have chosen to analyse intelligence as a mediator of the association between SES and personality because stable individual differences in intelligence tend to develop earlier than stable individual differences in personality [28] and because associations between SES and intelligence are usually found to be…”
BackgroundMethod
The evolving relationship between premorbid intelligence and serious depression across the lifespan – A longitudinal study of 43,540 Swedish men
Lager, E., Melin, B., Hemmingsson, T., & Wallin, A. S. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.051 · Cited by 12
“Lifestyle factors, such as risky use of alcohol or smoking, and structural factors, such as low SEP, are also associated with level of intelligence (Deary et al., 2010; Gottfredson, 2004; Hemmingsson et al., 2008), as well as increased risk of depression (Melchior et al., 2013).”
Background
Job-search strategies of individuals at risk of poverty and social exclusion in Spain
Gómez-Torres, M. J., Rodríguez-Santero, J., & Flores, J. G. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0210605 · Cited by 12
Intellectual abilities
Colom, R. (2020) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64150-2.00012-5 · Cited by 16
Constructive thinking, rational intelligence and irritable bowel syndrome
Rey, E., Moreno-Ortega, M., Alonso, M. O. G., & Díaz‐Rubio, M. (2009) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.15.3106 · Cited by 14
Measurement confounding affects the extent to which verbal IQ explains social gradients in mortality
Chapman, B. P., Fiscella, K. A., Duberstein, P. R., Kawachi, I. I., & Muennig, P. A. (2014) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2013-203741 · Cited by 11
“Tests of vocabulary are presumed to assess word familiarity, and also (1) concept formation (without which the correct definition cannot be given) and (2) the ability to deduce meaning of unfamiliar words based on known roots or syllables, using answer choices provided.”
Background
Predicting cognitive ability in ageing cohorts using Type 2 diabetes genetic risk
Michelle Luciano, A., Mõttus, R., Harris, S. E., Davies, G., Payton, A., Ollier, W., Horan, M. A., Starr, J. M., Porteous, D. J., Pendleton, N., et al. (2013) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.12389 · Cited by 12
General intelligence in friendship selection: A study of preadolescent best friend dyads
Boutwell, B. B., Meldrum, R. C., & Petkovsek, M. A. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.07.002 · Cited by 12
“Second, intelligence is a key correlate of success across the life course, in particular predicting a range of important behavioral outcomes, as well as educational attainment and socioeconomic success (Beaver et al., 2013; Boutwell et al., 2017; Gottfredson, 1997, 2004; Ritchie, 2015).”
Background
You Can Play the Game Without Knowing the Rules – But You’re Better Off Knowing Them
Levacher, J., Koch, M., Hissbach, J. C., Spinath, F. M., & Becker, N. (2021) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000637 · Cited by 13
Cognitive ability, health policy, and the dynamics of COVID-19 vaccination
Elinder, M., Erixson, O., & Öhman, M. (2023) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2023.102802 · Cited by 13
“The argument is that many health decisions faced by individuals are cognitively demanding since they involve processing of complex information (Gottfredson 2004; Gottfredson and Deary 2004).”
Does Education Matter? Major League Baseball Players and Longevity
Kalist, D. E., & Peng, Y. (2007) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481180701405196 · Cited by 11
“Those players with low cognitive ability may be more willing to turn professional out of high school or enroll in a junior college than enroll in a four-year university, and recent research indicates that intelligence is an important determinant of good health (Gottfredson, 2004).”
Background
Cognitive ability × emotional stability interactions on adjustment
Leikas, S., Mäkinen, S., Lönnqvist, J., & Verkasalo, M. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.711 · Cited by 13
“However, the predictive power of emotional stability and cognitive ability on, for instance, health-related outcomes seem to be rather similar across sexes (Gottfredson, 2004; Shipley et al., 2007), suggesting that interaction results similar to those we report could be found in a sample of women.”
BackgroundResult
Mothers want extraversion over conscientiousness or intelligence for their children
Latham, R. M., & von Stumm, S. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.07.037 · Cited by 11
“…2012; Trapmann, Hell, Hirn, & Schuler, 2007); succeed in the work place (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Schmidt & Hunter, 2004); are healthier (Bogg & Roberts, 2004; Gottfredson, 2004); and live longer (Batty, Deary, & Gottfredson, 2007; Friedman et al., 1993; Kern & Friedman, 2008; Whalley & Deary, 2001).”
Adolescent reserve capacity, socioeconomic status and school achievement as predictors of mortality in Finland - a longitudinal study
Acacio-Claro, P. J., Koivusilta, L. K., Borja, J. B., & Rimpelä, A. (2017) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4990-4 · Cited by 11
History of induced abortions and frailty in older Greek women: results from the HELIAD study
Mourtzi, N., Yannakoulia, M., Ntanasi, E., Kosmidis, M. H., Anastasiou, C. A., Dardiotis, E., Hadjigeorgiou, G. M., Megalou, M., Sakka, P., & Scarmeas, N. (2018) · European Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1007/s41999-018-0047-1 · Cited by 11
Compreender, raciocinar e resolver problemas: Novo instrumento de avaliação cognitiva
Lemos, G. C., & Almeida, L. S. (2019) · Análise Psicológica · doi:10.14417/ap.1583 · Cited by 10
Factor structure of intelligence and divergent thinking subtests: A registered report
Warne, R. T., Golightly, S., & Black, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274921 · Cited by 12
“Likewise, literacy tests are highly g loaded and—in American samples—do not seem to measure a construct that is distinct from intelligence [73].”
Background
The effect of college degree attainment on neurodegenerative symptoms in genetically at-risk women
Hong, J., Dembo, R. S., DaWalt, L. S., Brilliant, M. H., Berry‐Kravis, E., & Seltzer, M. M. (2022) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101262 · Cited by 11
“Explanations of why IQ would have an effect on health (e.g., Deary, Weiss, & Batty, 2010; Gottfredson, 2004) have focused on the g factor of intelligence, referring to the general mental ability that underlies performance on multiple cognitive tasks, and its correlation with health.”
Background
Intelligence and life expectancy in late adulthood: A meta-analysis
Sánchez‐Izquierdo, M., Ballesteros, R. F., Valeriano-Lorenzo, E., & Botella, J. (2023) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2023.101738 · Cited by 11
The Israeli Medical Association's discourse on health inequity
Avni, S., Filc, D., & Davidovitch, N. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.09.015 · Cited by 10
Methodologic Innovations and Advances in Social Epidemiology
Oakes, J. M., & Andrade, K. N. (2014) · Current Epidemiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s40471-014-0005-5 · Cited by 11
COGNITIVE ABILITY OF PRESCHOOL, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN COSTA RICA
Rindermann, H., STIEGMAIER, E.-M., & Meisenberg, G. (2014) · Journal of Biosocial Science · doi:10.1017/s0021932014000066 · Cited by 10
“It’s an ability effect, not a wealth effect (Gottfredson, 2004).”
Background
Attention Training in Schoolchildren Improves Attention but Fails to Enhance Fluid Intelligence
Sarzyńska‐Wawer, J., Żelechowska, D., Falkiewicz, M., & Nȩcka, E. (2017) · Studia Psychologica · doi:10.21909/sp.2017.01.730 · Cited by 10
“It has been demonstrated that Gf is an important predictor of academic achievement (Deary, Strand, Smith, & Fernandes, 2007), career outcomes and professional achievement (Ree & Earles, 1992), as well as health and mortality (Deary, 2008; Gottfredson, 1997, 2004).”
Background
Circadian preference and intelligence – an updated meta-analysis
Ujma, P. P., & Scherrer, V. (2021) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2021.1926473 · Cited by 12
The educational gradient in coronary heart disease: the association with cognition in a cohort of 57 279 male conscripts
Ariansen, I., Mortensen, L. H., Igland, J., Tell, G. S., Tambs, K., Graff‐Iversen, S., Strand, B. H., & Næss, Ø. (2014) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2014-204597 · Cited by 10
Get Safety Problems to the Surface
Lauver, K. J., & Lester, S. W. (2007) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1071791907308050 · Cited by 10
Is There a Relationship between High IQ Scores and Positive Life Outcomes? A Critical Review
Lo, C. (2017) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2017.84040 · Cited by 10
Cognitive ability and risk of death from lower respiratory tract infection: findings from UK Biobank
Galé, C. R., Deary, I. J., & Batty, G. D. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-38126-w · Cited by 10
The Working-Class as ‘Other’
Rickett, B. (2020) · Leeds Beckett Repository (Leeds Beckett University) · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55965-6 · Cited by 10
Sprawność intelektualna osób o odmiennych chronotypach
Jankowski, K. S. (2021) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487515.rozdzial10 · Cited by 8
Inteligencja a funkcjonowanie w bliskich związkach
Leniarska, M., & Zajenkowski, M. (2021) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487515.rozdzial11 · Cited by 8
Inteligencja a agresja. Czy wysokie IQ może uchronić przed wkroczeniem na ścieżkę przestępczą?
Bodecka-Zych, M. (2021) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487515.rozdzial03 · Cited by 8
Inteligentny sport: o związkach inteligencji z aktywnością fizyczną i poziomem wykonania sportowego
Waleriańczyk, W., & Stolarski, M. (2021) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487515.rozdzial09 · Cited by 8
An intelligent mind in a healthy body? Predicting health by cognitive ability in a large European sample
Fries, J., & Pietschnig, J. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101666 · Cited by 9
Towards a Critical Social Psychology of Social Class
Day, K., Rickett, B., & Woolhouse, M. (2017) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-51018-1_23 · Cited by 9
Pensando computacionalmente com Ana: storytelling sensível ao gênero para favorecer a autoeficácia das estudantes do ensino fundamental I
Cunha, M. S., Cabral, G. R. E., & Liliane Sheyla da Silva, F. (2022) · Anais do ... Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação/Anais do Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação · doi:10.5753/sbie.2022.224948 · Cited by 9
The Structural Validity of Daidalos: A measure of career maturity
Dybwad, T. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313830801915762 · Cited by 9
“The absence of such skills can have deleterious effects on a person’s employment status (Gottfredson, 2004) and earnings potential (Ishikawa & Ryan, 2002).”
Background
Communicating Intelligence Research
Wai, J. (2020) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence8040040 · Cited by 11
“2020, 8, 40; doi:10.3390/jintelligence8040040 www.mdpi.com/journal/jintelligence fields, such as epidemiology (e.g., Gottfredson 2004) and education (e.g., Wai et al. 2018) in which there has simply been little to no integration of intelligence research at all, and even strong resistance or just…”
BackgroundInfluential
Assessing intelligence without intelligence tests. Future perspectives
Koch, M., Becker, N., Spinath, F. M., & Greiff, S. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101596 · Cited by 9
Cognitive Epidemiology
Calvin, C. M., Batty, G. D., & Deary, I. J. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444343120.ch16 · Cited by 12
Multilevel multiverse meta-analysis indicates lower IQ as a risk factor for physical and mental illness
Fries, J., Oberleiter, S., Bodensteiner, F. A., Fries, N., & Pietschnig, J. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00245-2 · Cited by 8
“Recognized for its predictive power in real-world outcomes, intelligence has been increasingly included in mortality and disease prevention models since the late 1990s, underscoring its importance in understanding population-wide health differentials 8,19,20 .”
Intelligence and early life mortality: Findings from a longitudinal sample of youth
Beaver, K. M., Schwartz, J. A., Connolly, E. J., Al‐Ghamdi, M. S., Kobeisy, A. N., Barnes, J. C., & Boutwell, B. B. (2016) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2015.1137994 · Cited by 8
“associations with a wide range of health behaviors and outcomes (Der, Batty, & Deary, 2009; Deary, Whalley, & Starr, 2009; Gottfredson, 2004).”
Background
Wrecked by Success? Not to Worry
Kell, H. J., McCabe, K. O., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211055637 · Cited by 8
“This work planted the seeds for modern-day cognitive epidemiological inquiry (Deary et al., 2021; Deary, Harris, & Hill, 2009; Deary, Whalley, & Starr, 2009; Geary, 2018, 2019; Gottfredson, 2004; Lubinski & Humphreys, 1992, 1997).”
Background
A growing divide: Trends in social inequalities in healthy longevity in Australia, 2001–20
Xu, K. Q., & Payne, C. (2023) · Population Studies · doi:10.1080/00324728.2023.2241429 · Cited by 9
“…health benefits, due to its associations with healthier lifestyles and with individual cognitive ability and/or personal sense of control that may improve health through enhancing healthy behaviours or improving receptivity to health education messages (Mirowsky and Ross 1998; Gottfredson 2004).”
Childhood cognitive ability moderates later-life manifestation of type 2 diabetes genetic risk.
Mõttus, R., Michelle Luciano, A., Sarr, J. M., McCarthy, M. I., & Deary, I. J. (2015) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000184 · Cited by 8
“See Supplemental Material for further details.”
Background
Incremental Validity of Personality Measures in Predicting Underwater Performance and Adaptation
Plaza, J. C., Garcés-de-los-Fayos, E. J., García, J. J. L., & Colodro‐Conde, L. (2015) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2015.16 · Cited by 8
Intelligence in early adulthood and mortality from natural and unnatural causes in middle-aged Danish men
Meincke, R. H., Mortensen, E. L., Avlund, K., Rosthøj, S., Sørensen, H. J., & Osler, M. (2013) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2013-202637 · Cited by 8
Opportunity and Responsibility for Health
Cavallero, E. (2019) · The Journal of Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10892-019-09300-7 · Cited by 8
“Higher psychometric intelligence scores correlate positively with health knowledge, health literacy, daily self-maintenance, health self-care, and accident prevention (Gottfredson 2004).”
Background
Familial transmission of derived phenotypes for molecular genetic studies of substance use disorders
Faraone, S. V., Adamson, J., Wilens, T. E., Monuteaux, M. C., & Biederman, J. (2007) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.07.002 · Cited by 8
“Gottfredson (2004) presents evidence that g is a strong predictor of health outcomes, including cigarette, alcohol and substance use, as well as accidents related to use.”
Background
Intergenerational health selection in wealth: A first look at parents’ health events and inter vivos financial transfers
Andrew, M., & Ruel, E. E. (2010) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.06.004 · Cited by 8
God, family and money: Pacific people and gambling in New Zealand
Urale, P. W. B., Bellringer, M., Landon, J., & Abbott, M. (2015) · International Gambling Studies · doi:10.1080/14459795.2014.998252 · Cited by 11
“More broadly, financial sophistication among certain minority groups has already been suggested as a key factor (Welte et al., 2004), while others have looked to general intelligence as essential to understanding certain problem behaviours (Gottfredson, 2004).”
Background
Cognitive ability in early adulthood as a predictor of habitual drug use during later military service and civilian life: The Vietnam Experience Study
White, J., Mortensen, L. H., & Batty, G. D. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.03.024 · Cited by 8
“Given the close relation of IQ to socioeconomic status (Gottfredson, 2004), any associations between childhood IQ and later drug use may reflect the established relation of SES with drug use (Buka, 2002).”
Background
Associations between higher-level competence and general intelligence in community-dwelling older adults
Moriya, S., Tei, K., Miura, H., Inoue, N., & Yokoyama, T. (2012) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.717256 · Cited by 8
“Based on the view that general intelligence underlies socioeconomic achievement, behaviour and health, and is the fundamental cause of social inequalities in health (Gottfredson, 2004), general intelligence positively influences intellectual and social activities throughout life and also in old age, possibly explainin…”
Background
Solvent exposure and cognitive ability at age 67: a follow-up study of the 1947 Scottish Mental Survey
Dick, F. D., Bourne, V. J., Semple, S. E., Fox, H. C., Miller, B. G., Deary, I. J., & Whalley, L. J. (2009) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.2009.047977 · Cited by 8
“and if chronic exposure were associated with impaired mental function, this would prompt review of workplace exposure limits. This possible association is disputed and some argue poor cognitive function in solvent exposed workers is due to bias. For example, entering solvent exposed work may indicate a lower appreciat…”
Background
Cognitive ability and educational level in relation to concussion: a population study of young men
Teasdale, T. W., & Frøsig, A. J. (2013) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002321 · Cited by 8
Age at onset and age at treatment of alcohol use disorders: Associations with educational level and intelligence
Christoffersen, L. A. N., Mortensen, E. L., Becker, U., Osler, M., Sørensen, H. J., & Flensborg‐Madsen, T. (2021) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2021.04.005 · Cited by 8
Applications of Artificial Intelligence in the Realm of Business Intelligence
Mehrotra, P. (2020) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7705-9.ch018 · Cited by 8
Educating the Evolved Mind
Geary, D. C. (2007) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-588-220251002 · Cited by 15
Social discounting rate is negatively correlated with fluid intelligence
Osiński, J. T., Ostaszewski, P., & Karbowski, A. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.10.030 · Cited by 7
“Studies have demonstrated that as a predictor of socioeconomic status intelligence is more accurate than the status of parents (Gottfredson, 2004).”
Background
Brain Responses to Passive Sensory Stimulation Correlate With Intelligence
Horwitz, A., Klemp, M., Horwitz, H., Thomsen, M. D., Rostrup, E., Mortensen, E. L., Osler, M., Lauritzen, M., & Benedek, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00201 · Cited by 7
A new look at the relations between attachment and intelligence
Giudice, M. D., & Haltigan, J. D. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101054 · Cited by 8
“…job performance (Gottfredson, 2002; Jensen, 1998; Warne, 2020), but also on mental health (Caspi & Moffitt, 2018; Caspi et al., 2020; Hill et al., 2019; Whitley et al. 2011), physical health (Gottfredson, 2004), and even mortality (Arden et al., 2016; Calvin et al., 2011; Christensen et al., 2016).”
Background
Relationship between periodontal status and intellectual function among community‐dwelling elderly persons
Moriya, S., Tei, K., Toyoshita, Y., Koshino, H., Inoue, N., & Miura, H. (2011) · Gerodontology · doi:10.1111/j.1741-2358.2011.00483.x · Cited by 7
Vision and intelligence at age 83 in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921
Henderson, R. D., Allerhand, M., Patton, N., Pattie, A., Gow, A. J., Dhillon, B., Starr, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2011) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.02.005 · Cited by 7
Neuropsychological Assessment of the Dementias of Late Life
Cosentino, S., Brickman, A. M., & Manly, J. J. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-380882-0.00022-x · Cited by 7
STRATEGIES OF MEMORIZATION AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE LEARNING PROCESS AMONG INDIVIDUALS WITH BORDERLINE INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING
Jankowska, A. M., Bogdanowicz, M., & Shaw, S. R. (2012) · Acta Neuropsychologica · doi:10.5604/17307503.1008248 · Cited by 13
Today's decisions, Tomorrow's outcomes: Does self-control explain the educational smoking gradient?
Holmes, C. J. (2017) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.10.009 · Cited by 7
“Gottfredson (2004) finds that intelligence is important for determining health outcomes, but Link and Phelan (2009) refute this claim.”
Background
History and Development of Cultural Competence Evaluation in Applied Psychology
Frisby, C. L. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-78997-2_3 · Cited by 7
Trends in the shape of the income–mortality association in Sweden between 1995 and 2017: a repeated cross-sectional population register study
Rehnberg, J., Östergren, O., Fors, S., & Fritzell, J. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-054507 · Cited by 7
Does general intelligence moderate the association between inflammation and psychological distress?
Midouhas, E., Flouri, E., Papachristou, E., & Kokosi, T. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.03.002 · Cited by 8
“These include the extent to which participants might engage in identification of their own symptoms of psychological distress and consultation of a doctor for diagnosis and advice regarding treatment (Beier & Ackerman, 2003; Gottfredson, 2004).”
Background
The Six Challenges for Personality, Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Life Outcomes Research: An Introduction to the Topic
Kulikowski, K., & Ganzach, Y. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12030035 · Cited by 7
“…possibly be encountered when studying the relationship between political ideology and intelligence (Ganzach and Schul 2021; Jedinger and Burger 2022), the relationship between political ideology and personality (Fatke 2017) or the relationship between health and intelligence (Gottfredson 2004a).”
Background
Midlife diseases of despair and cardiometabolic risk: testing shared origins in adolescent psychopathology
Dent, K. R., Brennan, G. M., Khalifeh, L., & Richmond‐Rakerd, L. S. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724000916 · Cited by 7
The association between cognitive ability and body mass index: A sibling-comparison analysis in four longitudinal studies
Wright, L., Davies, N. M., & Bann, D. (2023) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004207 · Cited by 8
“Importantly, there is considerable overlap between the concepts of literacy and general cognitive ability [18] such that between-person differences in health literacy may be well captured by general intelligence tests [25].”
Background
Associations between intelligence in adolescence and indicators of health and health behaviors in midlife in a cohort of Swedish women
Modig, K., & Bergman, L. R. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.02.002 · Cited by 6
The Accumulation of Multiple Sources of Psychosocial Disadvantage and Their Correlation to Reported Overall Health: Establishing a Threshold
Wardian, J., Thaller, J., & Urbaeva, Z. (2014) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/swu049 · Cited by 7
Cognitive ability, lifestyle risk factors, and two-year survival in first myocardial infarction men: A Swedish National Registry study
Wallert, J., Madison, G., Held, C., & Olsson, E. M. G. (2016) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.12.144 · Cited by 6
Performance Pay Jobs and Job Satisfaction
Ledić, M. (2018) · CESifo Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/cesifo/ify008 · Cited by 6
School performance and mortality: The mediating role of educational attainment and work and family trajectories across the life course
Halpern-Manners, A., Raymo, J. M., Warren, J. R., & Johnson, K. (2020) · Advances in Life Course Research · doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2020.100362 · Cited by 10
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript Gottfredson and Deary 2004; Gottfredson 2004).”
Background
Mind the Gap: Compositional, Cultural and Institutional Explanations for Numeracy Skills Disparities between Adult Immigrants and Natives in Western CountriesPreprint
Levels, M., Dronkers, J., & Jencks, C. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2449635 · Cited by 6
Deriving phenotypes for molecular genetic studies of substance use disorders: A family study approach
Faraone, S. V., Adamson, J., Wilens, T. E., Monuteaux, M. C., & Biederman, J. (2006) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.11.002 · Cited by 6
Pioneering studies of IQ by G.H. Thomson and J.F. Duff – An example of established knowledge subsequently ‘hidden in plain sight’
Charlton, B. G. (2008) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.07.026 · Cited by 6
Blood on the tracks : Life-course perspectives on health inequalities in later life
Fors, S. (2010) · DiVA (Stockholm University) · Cited by 6
Characterizing and comparing adaptive and academic functioning in children with low average and below average intellectual abilities
Wexler, D., Pritchard, A. E., & Ludwig, N. N. (2022) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2022.2096484 · Cited by 5
“These individuals are at risk for more serious long-term concerns, such as substance abuse (Braatveit et al., 2018; Minehan et al., 2000), poor health care (Gottfredson, 2004; Gottfredson & Deary, 2004), and incarceration (Lindsay et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Cognitive rationality is heritable and lies under general cognitive ability
Bates, T. C. (2024) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2024.101895 · Cited by 5
Intelligence as a Predictor of Health, Illness, and Death
Deary, I. J., & Batty, G. D. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977244.035 · Cited by 5
Cognitive epidemiology: concepts, evidence, and future directions.
Calvin, C. M., Batty, G. D., & Deary, I. J. (2011) · Cited by 5
Social, Behavioral, and Contextual Influences on Cognitive Function and Decline over the Life Course
Leist, A. K., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2014) · International perspectives on aging · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06650-9_8 · Cited by 5
Career maturity: A latent means and covariance structure analysis of Daidalos
Dybwad, T. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00702.x · Cited by 5
Widening mortality disparities by educational attainment among native-born Americans adults over 3 decades of follow up: the mystery deepens
Gross, T., Glied, S., & Muennig, P. A. (2015) · International Journal of Healthcare · doi:10.5430/ijh.v1n1p40 · Cited by 5
Introduction
Mackenbach, J. P. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198831419.003.0001 · Cited by 6
The relationship between self-control and altruism in the light of discounting literature
Osiński, J. T., Karbowski, A., & Rusek, J. (2017) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2017-0049 · Cited by 5
“Studies show that the level of intelligence is a predictor of social and economic situation and is a better forecast indicator than the parents’ status (Gottfredson, 2004), but also that intelligence measured in childhood and at adult age turns out to be a predictor of social status, occupation and income (Judge, Higg…”
Background
Patterns of health inequalities
Mackenbach, J. P. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198831419.003.0002 · Cited by 5
Influences of perinatal conditions on adult body size and intellectual performance: a register-based cohort study
Eide, M. G. (2009) · Norsk Epidemiologi · doi:10.5324/nje.v15i1.224 · Cited by 5
“Moreover, improvements in a country’s overall health are often followed by larger social class inequalities in health.(29) This is probably because the improvements are smaller among those who have low education and low income than among those who have high education and better income.”
Background
The social epidemiologic concept of fundamental cause
Ward, A. C. (2007) · Metamedicine · doi:10.1007/s11017-007-9053-x · Cited by 5
“12 See Gottfredson [ 70 ], for an argument that ‘‘the general intelligence factor, g’’ (a paradigmatic”
Background
Cross-National Variation in Socioeconomic Status and Delinquency: A Comparative Study of Adolescents from 26 European Countries
Savolainen, J., Savolainen, J., Hughes, L. A., Savolainen, J., Hughes, L. A., & Bjarnason, Þ. (2013) · Comparative Sociology · doi:10.1163/15691330-12341280 · Cited by 5
Non-conformity may be hidden driver behind relation
Millet, K., & Dewitte, S. (2007) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.39121.870139.1f · Cited by 5
“Acquiring resources in isolation is more difficult than in groups.”
Background
Why Intelligent People Live LongerPreprint
Hauser, R. M., & Palloni, A. (2010) · Nature Precedings · doi:10.1038/npre.2010.4340.1 · Cited by 5
Commentary: Childhood education and disparities in adult health—the need for improved theories and better data
Whalley, L. J. (2006) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyl040 · Cited by 5
The hubris and humility effect and the domain-masculine intelligence type: exploration of determinants of gender differences in self-estimation of ability
Storek, J. (2011) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 5

Authors: Gottfredson, L. S.
Affiliations: University of Delaware (US)
Corresponding author: Gottfredson, Linda S.
ORCID: Gottfredson, Linda S.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004
Volume: 86
Issue: 1
Pages: 174-199
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.174
OpenAlex: W2141185279
Cited by: 580
References: 189
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 21
FWCI: 28.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: intelligence, socioeconomic status, health disparities, fundamental causes, psychosocial factors, material disadvantage
MeSH terms: Age Factors, Health Status, Humans, Intelligence, Social Class

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Intelligence: is it the epidemiologists’ elusive “fundamental cause” of social class inequalities in health?

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks