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Nostalgia: content, triggers, functions
Open accessAbstract
Seven methodologically diverse studies addressed 3 fundamental questions about nostalgia. Studies 1 and 2 examined the content of nostalgic experiences. Descriptions of nostalgic experiences typically featured the self as a protagonist in interactions with close others (e.g., friends) or in momentous events (e.g., weddings). Also, the descriptions contained more expressions of positive than negative affect and often depicted the redemption of negative life scenes by subsequent triumphs. Studies 3 and 4 examined triggers of nostalgia and revealed that nostalgia occurs in response to negative mood and the discrete affective state of loneliness. Studies 5, 6, and 7 investigated the functional utility of nostalgia and established that nostalgia bolsters social bonds, increases positive self-regard, and generates positive affect. These findings demarcate key landmarks in the hitherto uncharted research domain of nostalgia.
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“The effect has been observed among young and older adults, and in North America, Europe, and Asia.”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of nostalgic narratives have revealed that when one is nostalgic, they nearly always reflect on people (e.g., friends, family) and social gatherings in which they are surrounded by others (e.g., parties, weddings, family reunions) [12].”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Nostalgia, in turn, serves a positive function of alleviating the negative consequences of such psychologically adverse stimuli/states.”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For example, 79% of UK undergraduate students, and more than 50% of UK adults between 18 and 90, reported on the Southampton Nostalgia Scale (Appendix B) that they experienced nostalgia at least once a week (Hepper et al., 2021; Wildschut et al., 2006).”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Further, they show more empathy and trust for others, including members of an outgroup (Hepper et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006;”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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“Likewise, content analyses of nostalgic narratives or song lyrics highlight social objects (e.g., relationships, social interactions), momentous or leisure events involving others (e.g., graduations, birthday, holidays, vacations), tangibles (e.g., toys, books) given by signi fi cant others or shared with them, and social sentiments such as being loved or comforted by others (Abeyta, Routledge,”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The most common objects of nostalgic yearning were close others (e.g., family, romantic partners, friends), followed by momentous life events that included close others (e.g., weddings, graduations, family gatherings), animals (i.e., pets), tangibles (e.g., a coat), and settings (e.g., a lake).”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Among UK undergraduates and adults aged 18-91, nostalgia is experienced at least once a week and modally three times a week (Hepper, Robertson, Wildschut, Sedikides, & Routledge, 2014, Study 1;Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2).”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2
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“participants influenced by scent-evoked nostalgia felt loved and connected to loved ones (Reid et al., 2014).”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“At an explicit level, nostalgic narratives include redemptive and agency themes (Abeyta et al., 2014;Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2)”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“felt commonly (approximately 3 times a week; Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006)”
From Nostalgia-Evoked Inspiration: Mediating Mechanisms and Motivational Implications (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“we assessed the effectiveness of the nostalgia manipulations with a validated three-item manipulation check (Hepper et al., 2012;Wildschut et al., 2006)”
From Nostalgia-Evoked Inspiration: Mediating Mechanisms and Motivational Implications (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Path b, in turn, rests on evidence that inductions of nostalgia augment positive states, including social connectedness and empathy”
From The mnemonic mover: Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach motivation (2014) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This homeostatic function of nostalgia is plausible, given that, in addition to the above, experimentally induced nostalgia elevates social connectedness and empathy (Turner et al., 2012(Turner et al., , 2013;;Wildschut et al., 2006;Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012), raises positive mood and self-esteem (Hepper et al., 2012;Wildschut et al., 2006), decreases boredom (W. A. P. van Til”
From The mnemonic mover: Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach motivation (2014) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Using the split half method she found that the scale had good reliability (r=0.78,p<.01).Using test retest method (administering this scale to the same individual twice, using an interval of one week), she found good correlation between the average rating across the twenty items (r=0.84,p<.01).”
From How personal nostalgia influences giving to charity (2011) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al. (2006)
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“For example, nostalgia improves mood [3,12], makes people feel warmer [13], bolsters meaning in life [8,17], and increases self-continuity [18,19].”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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“Nostalgia is related to reminders of meaningful interactions with significant others13; therefore, the nostalgia-associated reminders of others may increase moral concern.”
From Nostalgia increases punitiveness by intensifying moral concern (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
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“Wildschut et al. discovered that those who reflected on a nostalgic event evinced greater social connectedness.”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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In the citing paper
“The content of nostalgia is highly social.”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Studies in which researchers have experimentally induced loneliness [28,12] and belongingness deficits [29] have confirmed that social disconnectedness leads to nostalgia.”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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In the citing paper
“Nostalgia is also triggered by noxious stimuli or aversive internal states, for example, negative affect [11,12], cold ambient temperature [13], existential threats (e.g., meaninglessness [8], death [14], boredom [15]), and self-discontinuity [16].”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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In the citing paper
“Wildschut et al. [12] more specifically found that nostalgia increases perceived confidence in initiating interactions, self-disclosing personal information, and providing social support.”
From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [12]
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“Content analyses of nostalgic narratives among UK participants have shown a similar blend of primarily positive (e.g., content, joy, tenderness, serenity) and secondarily negative (e.g., sadness, loss) affect (Madoglou et al., 2017; Wildschut et al., 2006).”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“Also in a British sample, the affectively imbued nostalgia narratives typically follow a redemptive trajectory, in which the negatively toned part is overcome by the positively toned part (i.e., the narrative starts badly but ends well; Wildschut et al., 2006).”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“They also feel more connected to loved ones, protected, and loved (Nostalgia Functions Scale; Hepper et al., 2012; see also Wildschut et al., 2006).”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“In addition, nostalgia can be triggered by discomforting states like negative affect (Barrett et al., 2010; Wildschut et al., 2006), loneliness (Wildschut et al., 2006, 2010), procedural injustice in the workplace (Van Dijke et al., 2015), meaninglessness (Routledge et al., 2011, 2012), disillusionment (Maher et al., 2021), death cognitions (Routledge et al., 2008), selfdiscontinuity (i.e., a”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“Participants in the high loneliness condition reported feeling more nostalgic than those in the low loneliness condition.”
From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al. (2006)
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In the citing paper
“Finally, the affective signature of nostalgic accounts validated that the emotion is ambivalent, but more positive than negative.”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The self was featured prominently in the nostalgic account and assumed a protagonistic role in most of them.”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The narratives were substantially richer in positive affect than in negative affect.”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We engaged in content analyses of stories submitted to the periodical Nostalgia (Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 1) and of event descriptions that participants furnished under a nostalgia writing prompt (Wildschut et al., Study 2).In both cases, a redemptive sequence far outweighed a contamination sequence.”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 1
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“Examples of internal triggers are discomforting states such as negative affect (Barrett et al., 2010;Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 3), social exclusion (Seehusen et al., 2013, Studies 3 and 4;Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010, Study 3), loneliness (Wildschut et al., Study 4;Wildschut et al., 2010, Study 1;Zhou, Sedikides, Wildschut, & Gao, 2008, Study 4), meaninglessness (R”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 3
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In the citing paper
“Wildschut et al. (2006) obtained direct experimental support for the idea that nostalgia augments self-esteem.Participants in the nostalgic-event (relative to ordinary-event) condition reported higher self-esteem, regardless of whether it was assessed with a brief scale (”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 6
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In the citing paper
“We have reported that nostalgic narratives are characterized by themes where the self is the main character in a positive chain of events (i.e., redemption; Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2).”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2
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In the citing paper
“Wildschut et al. (2006) obtained direct experimental support for the idea that nostalgia augments self-esteem.Participants in the nostalgic-event (relative to ordinary-event) condition reported higher self-esteem, regardless of whether it was assessed with a brief scale (”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 5
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In the citing paper
“Participants in the nostalgic-event condition indeed reported higher perceived interpersonal competence than their ordinary-event counterparts.”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“We demonstrated a causal connection between nostalgia and social connectedness, which we operationalized as: feeling loved, protected, connected to others, and trusting of others; experiencing attachment security; feeling socially supported; or being empathetic.”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“First, nostalgic narrations, scents, or songs produce more positive affect than negative affect (Barrett et al., 2010;Reid et al., 2014;Wildschut et al., 2006, Studies 1 and 2).”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Studies 1 and 2
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In the citing paper
“Second, a nostalgia condition produces stronger positive affect than a control condition (Cheung et al., 2013, Study 2 and 4;Hepper et al., 2012, Study 7;Lasaleta et al., 2014, Experiment 4;Stephan et al., 2012;Wildschut et al., 2006, Studies 5-7;Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012, Study 1; see also Batcho, 2013b;Verplanken, 2012), although sometimes the two conditions do not differ (”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Studies 5-7
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Loneliness emerged as the most frequently mentioned discrete emotional trigger of nostalgia in UK undergraduates' narratives (Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2).”
From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006, Study 2
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In the citing paper
“selfesteem (Hepper et al., 2012;Wildschut et al., 2006)”
From Nostalgia-Evoked Inspiration: Mediating Mechanisms and Motivational Implications (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“nostalgia increases social connectedness (Wildschut et al., 2006)”
From Nostalgia-Evoked Inspiration: Mediating Mechanisms and Motivational Implications (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“and raises self-esteem (Hepper et al., 2012;Wildschut et al., 2006).”
From Nostalgia-Evoked Inspiration: Mediating Mechanisms and Motivational Implications (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“For example, the positive and negative elements of nostalgic narratives are often juxtaposed so as to form a redemption sequence (Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006;Wildschut et al., 2006).”
From Nostalgia-Evoked Inspiration: Mediating Mechanisms and Motivational Implications (2015) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“the content of nostalgic narratives is more positive than negative, and that recalling nostalgic memories gives rise to more positive than negative affect”
From The mnemonic mover: Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach motivation (2014) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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In the citing paper
“There is growing evidence that aversive stimuli trigger nostalgia.”
From The mnemonic mover: Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach motivation (2014) · cites this paper as Wildschut et al., 2006
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Metadata
- Authors
- Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Arndt, J., & Routledge, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Southampton (GB)
- University of Missouri (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2006-11
- Volume
- 91
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 975-993
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2080315483
- Semantic Scholar
- 1439aca6a593a10c8ca1fa5d654c87063dd479e1
- Cited by
- 1,252
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 102 · 2022: 109 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 113 · 2019: 116 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 67 · 2015: 53 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 15.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Nostalgia and Consumer Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- nostalgia, negative mood, loneliness, social bonds, self-regard, positive affect, close relationships, life events, narrative content
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affect, Aged, 80 and over, Ego, Emotions, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Life Change Events, Loneliness, Male, Memory, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Students, Observer Variation, Narration
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