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Cited by 204Nostalgia and Consumer BehaviorMemory Processes and InfluencesDecision-Making and Behavioral Economics

The mnemonic mover: Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach motivation

Open access
Stephan, Elena, Wildschut, Tim, Sedikides, Constantine, Zhou, Xinyue, He, Wuming, Routledge, Clay, Cheung, Wing-Yee, Vingerhoets, Ad J. J. M.·2014·Emotion
DOI 10.1037/a0035673
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Abstract

In light of its role in maintaining psychological equanimity, we proposed that nostalgia--a self-relevant, social, and predominantly positive emotion--regulates avoidance and approach motivation. We advanced a model in which (a) avoidance motivation triggers nostalgia and (b) nostalgia, in turn, increases approach motivation. As a result, nostalgia counteracts the negative impact of avoidance motivation on approach motivation. Five methodologically diverse studies supported this regulatory model. Study 1 used a cross-sectional design and showed that avoidance motivation was positively associated with nostalgia. Nostalgia, in turn, was positively associated with approach motivation. In Study 2, an experimental induction of avoidance motivation increased nostalgia. Nostalgia then predicted increased approach motivation. Studies 3-5 tested the causal effect of nostalgia on approach motivation and behavior. These studies demonstrated that experimental nostalgia inductions strengthened approach motivation (Study 3) and approach behavior as manifested in reduced seating distance (Study 4) and increased helping (Study 5). The findings shed light on nostalgia's role in regulating the human motivation system.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes that nostalgia is a regulatory emotion: avoidance motivation triggers nostalgia, and nostalgia then increases approach motivation, counteracting avoidance’s negative effect. Across five studies using cross-sectional, experimental, and behavioral designs, the authors find support for this model mainly for Fun Seeking and Drive, but not consistently for Reward Responsiveness.

Key findings

  • In Study 1 (N = 533 Dutch adults), avoidance motivation (BIS) was positively associated with nostalgia, and nostalgia was positively associated with all three BAS-related dimensions. The indirect effect of BIS on BAS dimensions via nostalgia was significant for Fun Seeking, Drive, and Reward Responsiveness, even after controlling for the Big Five; for Fun Seeking and Drive this was a suppressor pattern, while Reward Responsiveness showed a redundancy pattern.
  • In Study 2 (N = 303 US MTurk participants), an avoidance-motivation induction increased state nostalgia (M = 2.65 vs. 2.18, d = 0.56). Indirect effects of avoidance condition on Fun Seeking and Drive via nostalgia were significant, but not for Reward Responsiveness; these indirect effects held when controlling for negative/positive affect and perceived probability/duration of imagined events.
  • In Study 3 (N = 120), a nostalgia induction increased Fun Seeking (M = 4.48 vs. 3.97, d = 0.44) and Drive (M = 4.28 vs. 3.74, d = 0.50), but not Reward Responsiveness.
  • In Studies 4–5 with Chinese undergraduates, nostalgia increased approach behavior: participants in the nostalgia condition placed chairs closer together (M = 85.70 cm vs. 104.51 cm, d = 0.78) and picked up more pencils (M = 18.20 vs. 14.67, d = 0.80), with effects remaining after controlling for positive and negative affect.

Methods

  • Five methodologically diverse studies tested the regulatory model. Study 1 was a cross-sectional online survey of 533 Dutch general-public participants, measuring BIS, BAS-related dimensions, nostalgia via the Nostalgia Inventory and Southampton Nostalgia Scale, and Big Five covariates; indirect effects were tested with PROCESS model 4.
  • Study 2 was an experiment with 303 US MTurk participants randomly assigned to avoidance-motivation or control conditions, followed by state nostalgia and BAS measures; analyses controlled for affect and event perceptions.
  • Studies 3–5 were experiments. Study 3 (N = 120) induced nostalgia versus an ordinary event and measured BAS-related approach motivation. Studies 4 (N = 64) and 5 (N = 41) used Chinese undergraduate samples, induced nostalgia, measured PANAS affect, and assessed approach behavior through seating distance and helping (pencil pickup), analyzed with ANOVA/ANCOVA.

Limitations

  • Stated: the authors note only one avoidance induction (recalling negative future events), only one nostalgia induction (recalling a nostalgic autobiographical event), and approach behavior tested only in interpersonal contexts; they also state that mechanisms linking nostalgia to approach motivation were not identified, proposing self-efficacy and abstract construal for future work.
  • Stated: the model was not supported for Reward Responsiveness, which showed inconsistent or null patterns across studies; the authors say these effects need further empirical confirmation.
  • Evident: Study 1 is cross-sectional and cannot establish causal ordering; several samples are convenience, student, or MTurk samples; some Study 2 direct effects on approach motivation were non-significant trends, and the paper relies on self-report BAS measures in Studies 1–3.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/a0035673

Cites

149 of 149 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

34 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

17 of 71 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Interpretationreasoning

    When the opposing indirect effect via nostalgia is controlled, the partial negative direct effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation is strengthened.

    “The regulatory model therefore predicts that, when the opposing indirect effect via nostalgia is controlled, the partial negative direct effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation (path c') is strengthened”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites MacKinnon & Fairchild, 2009 source

      The Single-Mediator Model section defines c′ as the direct effect with the mediator relation removed and states that the total effect is the sum of the direct and indirect effects. The Causal Steps section explains that opposing direct and indirect effects can offset one another, supporting the proposed strengthening of a negative direct effect when a positive indirect effect is controlled. The paper does not address nostalgia or the specific relationship between avoidance and approach motivation; those are the citing authors’ application of the model. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Paulhus et al., 2004 source
  • Premisecitation

    Aversive stimuli trigger nostalgia.

    “There is growing evidence that aversive stimuli trigger nostalgia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Wildschut et al., 2006 source
    • cites Zhou et al., 2008 source

      The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) report that experimentally induced loneliness increased nostalgia. Loneliness is an aversive experience, but the paper does not establish that aversive stimuli generally trigger nostalgia. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Seehusen et al., 2013 source
  • Premisecitation

    Nostalgia predicted increased perceived social support after a loneliness induction.

    “Nostalgia, in turn, predicted increased perceived social support.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhou et al., 2008 source
  • Premisecitation

    A loneliness induction increased nostalgia.

    “At the same time, the loneliness induction increased nostalgia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhou et al., 2008 source
  • Premisecitation

    A loneliness induction decreased perceived social support.

    “Zhou et al. (2008, Study 2) found, for instance, that a loneliness induction decreased perceived social support.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhou et al., 2008 source
  • May combine two claims. 30
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 31
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The content of nostalgic narratives is more positive than negative, and recalling nostalgic memories gives rise to more positive than negative affect.

    “the content of nostalgic narratives is more positive than negative, and that recalling nostalgic memories gives rise to more positive than negative affect”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wildschut et al., 2006 source
    • cites Wildschut et al., 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inductions of nostalgia augment positive states, including social connectedness, empathy, positive mood, self-esteem, continuity between past and present, perceptions of meaningfulness, and thermoregulatory comfort.

    “Path b, in turn, rests on evidence that inductions of nostalgia augment positive states, including social connectedness and empathy”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Turner et al., 2012 source

      The Nostalgia section (p. 4) says experimentally induced nostalgia increases perceptions of social support and other aspects of social connectedness. The Consequences of Nostalgia for Outgroup Attitudes section describes greater empathy as a potential benefit, not an observed effect of the induction. Our copy does not establish the additional states listed in the supplied claim. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Wildschut et al., 2006 source

      The Function Question (p. 38) reports that nostalgia inductions increased social bonding, self-regard, and positive affect relative to controls. The Relationships section (p. 40) asks whether nostalgia might also produce compassion; it does not report that the inductions increased empathy. The paper also does not establish the quoted claims about meaningfulness or thermoregulatory comfort. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Zhou et al., 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Experimentally induced nostalgia elevates social connectedness and empathy, raises positive mood and self-esteem, decreases boredom, increases perceptions of continuity between one's past and present, strengthens meaningfulness, and maintains subjective thermoregulatory comfort.

    “This homeostatic function of nostalgia is plausible, given that, in addition to the above, experimentally induced nostalgia elevates social connectedness and empathy (Turner et al., 2012(Turner et al., , 2013;;Wildschut et al., 2006;Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012), raises positive mood and self-esteem (Hepper et al., 2012;Wildschut et al., 2006), decreases boredom (W. A. P. van Til”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Turner et al., 2012 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Wildschut et al., 2006 source

      The Functions section (pp. 31, 33–34) reports that experimentally induced nostalgia increased social bonding, positive affect, and self-esteem relative to controls. The paper does not report an increase in empathy, which is grouped with social connectedness in the citing sentence. The later outcomes in the supplied quote are not shown as attributed to Wildschut et al. in the supplied citing-sentence excerpt. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Hepper et al., 2012 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Abstract construal allows individuals to transcend the particularities of the present situation and act according to their global concerns.

    “Abstract construal allows individuals to transcend the particularities of the present situation and act according to their global concerns (Trope & Liberman, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trope & Liberman, 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A test of the indirect effect is mathematically equivalent to a test of the difference between the association of BIS with the BAS-related dimensions before and after controlling for nostalgia.

    “A test of the indirect effect is mathematically equivalent to a test of the difference between the association of BIS with the BAS-related dimensions before (Table 2, column c) and after (Table 2, column c') controlling for nostalgia (MacKinnon & Fairchild, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacKinnon & Fairchild, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Negativity need not detract from nostalgia's effect on approach motivation.

    “Mounting evidence for the psychological and health benefits of experiencing a mixture of positive and negative emotion, or”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Adler & Hershfield, 2012 source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says that experiencing positive and negative emotions together may benefit well-being, supporting the general point that negativity need not erase a positive effect. The paper does not address nostalgia or its effect on approach motivation, so it does not support that specific application. (LLM, conf=0.79)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Hershfield, Scheibe, Sims, & Carstensen, 2013 source

      The supplied passage from the paper (section labeled Abstract; page unavailable) says that negative affect alongside positive affect can benefit long-term health. It does not address nostalgia or whether negativity changes nostalgia’s effect on approach motivation; searches for those terms found no matching passage. (LLM, conf=0.79)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Larsen, Hemenover, Norris, & Cacioppo, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 5, the nostalgia and control conditions did not differ significantly on either PA or NA.

    “The nostalgia and control conditions did not differ significantly on either PA (M nostalgia = 3.10, SD = 0.80 vs. M control = 3.00, SD = 0.73), F(1, 39) = 0.17, p = .679,d = 0.13, or NA (M nostalgia = 1.56,SD = 0.55 vs. M control = 1.43,SD = 0.56), F(1, 39) = 0.50, p = .485,d = 0.23.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 4, the nostalgia and control conditions did not differ significantly on either PA or NA.

    “The nostalgia and control conditions did not differ significantly on either PA (M nostalgia = 3.14, SD = 0.73 vs. M control = 2.92, SD = 0.72), F(1, 62) = 1.51, p = .223,d = 0.31, or NA (M nostalgia = 1.64,SD = 0.60 vs. M control = 1.57,SD = 0.59), F(1, 62) = 0.23, p = .631,d = 0.12.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, after controlling for nostalgia, the effect of avoidance motivation (vs. control) on Drive became more negative and reached statistical significance.

    “The effect of avoidance motivation (vs.control) on Drive also became more negative and reached statistical significance after controlling for nostalgia (Table 4, columns c vs. c').”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, participants in the avoidance-motivation condition scored lower on Fun Seeking than control participants, but the difference was non-significant (M = 3.63, SD = 1.09 vs. M = 3.84, SD = 1.15), F(1, 301) = 2.25, p = .135, d = 0.17.

    “Results revealed a non-significant trend for participants in the avoidance-motivation (compared to control) condition to score lower on Fun Seeking (M avoidance = 3.63, SD = 1.09 vs. M control = 3.84, SD = 1.15),F(1, 301) = 2.25, p = .135,d = 0.17.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, after controlling for nostalgia, the effect of avoidance motivation (vs. control) on Fun Seeking became more negative and reached statistical significance.

    “The effect of avoidance motivation (vs.control) on Fun Seeking became more negative and reached statistical significance after controlling for nostalgia (Table 4, columns c vs. c').”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, there were significant indirect effects of avoidance motivation (vs. control) via nostalgia on Fun Seeking and Drive, but not on Reward Responsiveness.

    “There were significant indirect effects of avoidance motivation (vs.control) via nostalgia on Fun Seeking and Drive, but not on Reward Responsiveness (Table 5).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, participants in the avoidance-motivation condition scored lower on Drive than control participants, but the difference was non-significant (M = 3.77, SD = 1.23 vs. M = 3.98, SD = 1.13), F(1, 301) = 2.23, p = .136, d = 0.17.

    “We observed a similar trend for participants in the avoidance-motivation (compared to control) condition to score lower on Drive (M avoidance = 3.77, SD = 1.23 vs. M control = 3.98, SD = 1.13),F(1, 301) = 2.23, p = .136,d = 0.17.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, nostalgia had significant unique associations with Fun Seeking and Drive, but not with Reward Responsiveness.

    “The analyses revealed significant unique associations of nostalgia with Fun Seeking and Drive, but not with Reward Responsiveness (Table 4, column b').”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, the indirect effects of avoidance motivation (vs. control) on Fun Seeking and Drive via nostalgia remained significant after controlling for anticipated probability and duration of imagined events.

    “The indirect effects of avoidance motivation (vs.control) on Fun Seeking and Drive via nostalgia remained significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Study 2, participants in the avoidance-motivation condition scored slightly higher on Reward Responsiveness than control participants, but the difference was non-significant (M = 4.93, SD = 0.82 vs. M = 4.86, SD = 0.74), F(1, 301) = 0.57, p = .542, d = 0.09.

    “The result pattern was reversed for Reward Responsiveness, with slightly and non-significantly higher scores in the avoidancemotivation (compared to control) condition (M avoidance = 4.93, SD = 0.82 vs. M control = 4.86, SD = 0.74), F(1, 301) = 0.57, p = .542,d = 0.09.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Nostalgia is an ambivalent, but predominantly positive, emotion.

    “In contrast, our research has indicated that nostalgia is an ambivalent, but predominantly positive, emotion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    We replicated two gender differences documented by Carver and White (1994).

    “We also replicated two gender differences documented by Carver and White (1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carver and White (1994) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Participant age was not significantly correlated with any of the dependent variables in Study 3.

    “Participant age was not significantly correlated with any of the dependent variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The current research has obtained evidence that nostalgia is associated with, or fosters, approach motivation.

    “We have obtained evidence in the current research that nostalgia is associated with, or fosters, approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals are highly attuned to positive information following negative events, and this tuning to positivity subserves psychological homeostasis.

    “recent evidence shows that individuals are highly attuned to positive information following negative events and that this tuning to positivity subserves psychological homeostasis”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites DeWall & Baumeister, 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites DeWall et al., 2011 source
    • cites Sedikides, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Behavior is driven by two fundamental action tendencies: avoidance and approach.

    “Behavior is driven by two fundamental action tendencies: avoidance and approach”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Carver, 2001 source
    • cites Higgins, 1997 source
    • cites Miller, 1944

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Nostalgia has a broader capacity to offset psychological distress and maintain psychological equanimity.

    “We propose that these findings illustrate a broader capacity of nostalgia to offset psychological distress and maintain psychological equanimity”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Sedikides et al., 2004
    • cites Sedikides et al., 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Wildschut et al., 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Nostalgia is a discrete emotion, distinct from homesickness.

    “researchers now agree that nostalgia is a discrete emotion, distinct from homesickness”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Frijda, 1986

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 1989 source
    • cites Ortony et al., 1988 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Avoidance and approach motivations occur in parallel, and their coordination is crucial for adaptive functioning.

    “It has been proposed that avoidance and approach motivations occur in parallel (Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999), and that their coordination is crucial for adaptive functioning”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cacioppo et al., 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Carver, 2006 source
    • cites Elliot, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    BIS activation provides the neuroanatomical substrate for aversive or avoidance motivation.

    “The BIS provides the neuroanatomical substrate for aversive or avoidance motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Laypersons conceptualize nostalgia as a social and past-oriented emotion.

    “laypersons conceptualize it as a social and past-oriented emotion (Hepper et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hepper et al., 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Positive affect features centrally in the prototypical nostalgic experience, whereas negative affect features only peripherally.

    “Hepper et al. showed that positive affect (e.g., happiness) features centrally in the prototypical nostalgic experience, whereas negative affect (e.g., sadness, anxiety) features only peripherally.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hepper et al., 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    BIS underlies negative feelings such as anxiety, sadness, frustration, and fear.

    “It underlies the experience of negative feelings such as anxiety, sadness, frustration, and fear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    BAS is sensitive to signals of reward or nonpunishment, facilitating goals and behavior likely to lead to positive outcomes.

    “This system is sensitive to signals of reward or nonpunishment, facilitating goals and behavior that are likely to lead to positive outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    BIS is sensitive to signals of punishment or nonreward, inhibiting goals and ongoing behavior likely to lead to painful outcomes.

    “This system is sensitive to signals of punishment or nonreward, inhibiting goals and ongoing behavior that are likely to lead to painful outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    The findings shed light on nostalgia's role in regulating the human motivation system.

    “The findings shed light on nostalgia's role in regulating the human motivation system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The indirect effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation via nostalgia is positive and directionally opposite to the negative direct effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation.

    “A defining feature of the proposed regulatory model is that the indirect effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation via nostalgia is positive (path ab) and therefore directionally opposite to the negative direct effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation (c).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    BAS provides the neuroanatomical substrate for appetitive or approach motivation.

    “The behavioral approach system (BAS) provides the neuroanatomical substrate for appetitive or approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    BAS underlies positive feelings such as hope, happiness, and elation.

    “The BAS underlies the experience of positive feelings such as hope, happiness, and elation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The psychological significance of nostalgia resides in its capacity to counteract avoidance motivation and increase approach motivation.

    “we propose that the psychological significance of nostalgia resides in its capacity to counteract avoidance motivation and increase approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Preliminary analyses in Study 2 revealed that neither age nor gender qualified the key findings.

    “Preliminary analyses revealed that neither age nor gender qualified the key findings. We therefore omitted these variables from the analyses reported below.3”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reward Responsiveness and BIS are relatively more dependent on environmental contingencies, whereas Fun Seeking and Drive are relatively more dependent on intrinsic motivational forces.

    “In all, this evidence indicates that Reward Responsiveness and BIS are relatively more dependent on environmental contingencies, whereas Fun Seeking and Drive are relatively more dependent on intrinsic motivational forces.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed regulatory model holds that (a) avoidance motivation triggers nostalgia and (b) nostalgia, in turn, increases approach motivation.

    “In particular, we proposed a regulatory model in which (a) avoidance motivation triggers nostalgia and (b) nostalgia, in turn, increases approach motivation (Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    From a purely statistical viewpoint, the most plausible alternative sequence is one in which approach motivation increases nostalgia, which then increases avoidance motivation.

    “From a purely statistical viewpoint, then, the most plausible alternative sequence is one in which approach motivation increases nostalgia, which then increases avoidance motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Nostalgia plays a role in preventing prolonged incapacitation by counteracting avoidance motivation and increasing approach motivation.

    “We propose that nostalgia plays a role in preventing such scenarios by counteracting avoidance motivation and increasing approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous research has shown that Fun Seeking and Drive are negatively correlated with BIS, whereas Reward Responsiveness is positively correlated with BIS.

    “Notably, previous research has shown that, whereas Fun Seeking and Drive are negatively correlated with BIS, Reward Responsiveness is positively correlated with BIS (Carver & White, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carver & White, 1994 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Preliminary analyses in Study 1 revealed that neither age nor gender qualified the key findings.

    “Preliminary analyses revealed that neither age nor gender qualified the key findings. We therefore omitted these variables from the analyses reported below.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Suppressor situations are replicable in behavioral science.

    “Paulhus et al. (2004) demonstrated that these situations are replicable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Paulhus et al., 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Avoidance motivation was positively associated with (Study 1) and increased (Study 2) nostalgia.

    “Specifically, avoidance motivation was positively associated with (Study 1) and increased (Study 2) nostalgia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In Study 4, nostalgia increased approach behavior, and did so independently of PA or NA.

    “In all, nostalgia increased approach behavior, and did so independently of PA or NA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Across the five studies, the authors used a convergent operations approach to test the regulatory model.

    “Across the five studies, we used a convergent operations approach (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) to test the regulatory model (Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Campbell & Fiske, 1959 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that abstract construal involved in nostalgic recollections elicits approach motivation.

    “Taken together, it is likely that abstract construal involved in nostalgic recollections (Stephan et al., 2012) elicits approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stephan et al., 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ambivalent emotions confer functional, health, and instrumental benefits, especially predominantly positive ones like nostalgia.

    “Ambivalent emotions confer functional, health, and instrumental benefits (Larsen et al., 2003;Tamir, 2009), especially those emotions-like nostalgia-that are predominantly positive (Schwartz et al., 2002;Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Larsen et al., 2003 source
    • cites Tamir, 2009 source
    • cites Schwartz et al., 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The authors used only a single experimental induction of avoidance motivation, in which participants were instructed to bring to mind negative future events they were concerned could happen and wanted to avoid, compared to ordinary future events.

    “First, we used only a single experimental induction of avoidance motivation, whereby participants were instructed to bring to mind negative future events they were concerned could happen and wanted to avoid (compared to ordinary future events).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The avoidance motivation induction used in Study 2 (recalling negative future events one wants to avoid) successfully induces avoidance motivation.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Abstract construal facilitates arguments in favor (rather than against) actions.

    “For example, abstract construal facilitates arguments in favor (rather than against) actions (Eyal, Liberman, Trope, & Walther, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eyal, Liberman, Trope, & Walther, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The reported studies did not identify psychological mechanisms underlying the postulated role of nostalgia in motivation regulation.

    “Moreover, the reported studies did not identify psychological mechanisms underlying the postulated role of nostalgia in motivation regulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The authors tested approach behavior exclusively in an interpersonal context.

    “Third, we tested approach behavior exclusively in interpersonal context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    When individuals face a challenging situation, abstract construal facilitates consideration of long-term rewards present in the situation, thus activating goal representations likely to maximize the attainment of these rewards.

    “When individuals face a challenging situation (e.g., one that has self-evaluative implications), abstract construal facilitates consideration of long-term rewards present in the situation, thus activating goal representations likely to maximize the attainment of these rewards (Freitas, Gollwitzer, & Trope, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Freitas, Gollwitzer, & Trope, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Nostalgia's contribution to adaptive human functioning may derive, at least in part, from its capacity to counteract avoidance motivation and increase approach motivation.

    “Nostalgia's contribution to adaptive human functioning may derive, at least in part, from its capacity to counteract avoidance motivation and increase approach motivation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The authors used only a single experimental induction of nostalgia, in which participants were instructed to recall a nostalgic (compared to ordinary) autobiographical event.

    “Second, we used only a single experimental induction of nostalgia, whereby participants were instructed to recall a nostalgic (compared to ordinary) autobiographical event.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach strivings, thus balancing the motivational system.

    “It regulates avoidance and approach strivings, thus balancing the motivational system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    This finding is in line with previous research showing greater nostalgia proneness among females.

    “This finding is in line with some of our previous research showing greater nostalgia proneness among females (Wildschut et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wildschut et al., 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

58 of 58

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The avoidance motivation induction used in Study 2 (recalling negative future events one wants to avoid) successfully induces avoidance motivation.

    “First, we used only a single experimental induction of avoidance motivation, whereby participants were instructed to bring to mind negative future events they were concerned could happen and wanted to avoid (compared to ordinary future events).”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • When controlling for the mediator, the negative effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation was strengthened, with Path c′ more negative than Path c.

    “When we controlled for the mediator, the negative effect of avoidance motivation on approach motivation was strengthened (i.e., Path c ′ was more negative than Path c).”

    From Water From the Lake of Memory: The Regulatory Model of Nostalgia (2023) · cites this paper as Stephan et al., 2014, Study 2

    In “Testing the regulatory model,” controlling for nostalgia made the avoidance-motivation effect more negative for Fun Seeking and Drive (c′ versus c). The same passage says the effect on Reward Responsiveness was unaffected, so the unqualified claim does not hold for every measure of approach motivation. Page numbers are not provided in our copy's passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Avoidance (relative to control) motivation tended to lower approach motivation.

    “Avoidance (relative to control) motivation tended to lower approach motivation.”

    From To Nostalgize (2015) · cites this paper as Stephan et al., 2014, Study 2

    The Approach motivation results report nonsignificant trends toward lower Fun Seeking and Drive in the avoidance-motivation group than in controls. Reward Responsiveness, another measure of approach motivation, instead showed a slight, nonsignificant increase, so the unqualified claim is broader than the results support. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Nostalgia decreases the physical distance that people place between themselves and others.

    “Another study showed that nostalgia decreases the physical distance that people place between themselves and others [40].”

    From Nostalgia: An impactful social emotion (2023) · cites this paper as [40]

  • In Chinese samples, experimentally induced nostalgia increases social connectedness.

    “nostalgic (vs. control) participants were more likely to make charitable donations (Zhou et al., 2012), placed their own chair closer to the one for a person they were about to meet (Stephan et al., 2014, Study 4), were more willing to come to the aid of an ostensibly clumsy experimenter (Stephan et al., 2014, Study 5), and were more eager to solicit help from a stranger when in time of need (Juhl”

    From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Stephan et al., 2014

  • Induced nostalgia (vs. control) strengthened approach motivation.

    “Importantly, these authors documented a causal relation between nostalgia and approach motivation. Speci fi cally, they induced nostalgia with the Event Re fl ection Task and measured approach motivation with a state version of the Behavioral Activation Scale (e.g., ' I am always willing to try something new if I think it will be fun, ' ' I go out of my way to get things I want ' ). Nostalgia (vs.”

    From Nostalgia across cultures (2022) · cites this paper as Stephan et al., 2014

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(1, 301) = 0.57, p = .542

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .542 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .451. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .542 · recomputed p = .451

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 301) = 0.57reported p = .542 · recomputed p = .451

    “F(1, 301) = 0.57, p = .542”

  • ConsistentF(1, 301) = 175.1reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 301) = 175.10,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 301) = 23.75reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 301) = 23.75, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 301) = 2.25reported p = .135 · recomputed p = .135

    “F(1, 301) = 2.25, p = .135”

  • ConsistentF(1, 301) = 2.23reported p = .136 · recomputed p = .136

    “F(1, 301) = 2.23, p = .136”

  • ConsistentF(1, 118) = 22.81reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 118) = 22.81, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 118) = 5.65reported p = .019 · recomputed p = .019

    “F(1, 118) = 5.65, p = .019”

  • ConsistentF(1, 118) = 7.37reported p = .008 · recomputed p = .008

    “F(1, 118) = 7.37, p = .008”

  • ConsistentF(1, 118) = 0.56reported p = .457 · recomputed p = .456

    “F(1, 118) = 0.56, p = .457”

  • ConsistentF(1, 62) = 16.11reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 62) = 16.11,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 62) = 1.51reported p = .223 · recomputed p = .224

    “F(1, 62) = 1.51, p = .223”

  • ConsistentF(1, 62) = 0.23reported p = .631 · recomputed p = .633

    “F(1, 62) = 0.23, p = .631”

  • ConsistentF(1, 62) = 73.2reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 62) = 73.20,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 62) = 59.23reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 62) = 59.23, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 62) = 9.49reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003

    “F(1, 62) = 9.49, p = .003”

  • ConsistentF(1, 39) = 22.58reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 39) = 22.58, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 39) = 0.17reported p = .679 · recomputed p = .682

    “F(1, 39) = 0.17, p = .679”

  • ConsistentF(1, 39) = 0.5reported p = .485 · recomputed p = .484

    “F(1, 39) = 0.50, p = .485”

  • ConsistentF(1, 39) = 54.87reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 39) = 54.87,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 39) = 59.24reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 39) = 59.24, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 39) = 6.27reported p = .017 · recomputed p = .017

    “F(1, 39) = 6.27, p = .017”

  • ConsistentF(1, 531) = 9.89reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002

    “F(1, 531) = 9.89, p = .002”

  • ConsistentF(1, 531) = 49.8reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 531) = 49.80,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 531) = 11.79reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 531) = 11.79,p < .001”

  • Consistentr(533) = -0.17reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(533) = -.17,p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 298) = 12.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 298) = 12.09, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 298) = 5.65reported p = .018 · recomputed p = .018

    “F(1, 298) = 5.65, p = .018”

  • ConsistentF(1, 298) = 5.09reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .025

    “F(1, 298) = 5.09, p = .025”

  • ConsistentF(1, 298) = 4.63reported p = .032 · recomputed p = .032

    “F(1, 298) = 4.63, p = .032”

  • ConsistentF(1, 298) = 138.14reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 298) = 138.14,p < .001”

  • Consistentr(302) = -0.12reported p = .038 · recomputed p = .037

    “r(302) = -.12,p = .038”

  • Consistentr(302) = -0.32reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(302) = -.32,p < .001”

  • Consistentr(302) = -0.17reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003

    “r(302) = -.17,p = .003”

  • ConsistentF(1, 116) = 4.81reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .030

    “F(1, 116) = 4.81, p = .030”

34 of 34

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

13 of the 162 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 10

  1. [49]49. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  2. [51]51. Frost, I. (1938). Homesickness and immigrant psychoses. Journal of Mental Science, 84, 801-847.
  3. [66]66. Hofer, J. (1934). Medical dissertation on nostalgia. (C. K. Anspach, Trans.). Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2, 376-391. (Original work published 1688)
  4. [70]70. John, O. P., Naumann, L. P., & Soto, C. J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative Big-Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 114-158). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  5. [72]72. Juhl, J., Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2010). Fighting the future with the past: On the death-anxiety buffering function of nostalgia. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 309-314.
  6. [82]82. Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In J. M. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders: A handbook based on experimental and clinical research. (Vol. 1, pp. 431-465). New York, NY: Ronald Press.
  7. [84]84. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  8. [94]94. Schneirla, T. (1959). An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In M. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 27-58).
  9. [96]96. Sedikides, C. (2012). Self-protection. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (2 nd ed., pp. 327-353). New York, NY: Guilford Press .
  10. [97]97. Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T., Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Hepper, E., Vail, K., … Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2013). Nostalgia counteracts self-discontinuity and fosters self-continuity: Implications for well-being. Unpublished manuscript, University of Southampton.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Stephan, E., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Zhou, X., He, W., Routledge, C., Cheung, W.-Y., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M.
Affiliations
  • University of Southampton (GB)
  • Sun Yat-sen University (CN)
  • North Dakota State University (US)
  • Tilburg University (NL)
ORCID
Venue
Emotion
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2014-06
Volume
14
Issue
3
Pages
545-561
ISSN
  • 1528-3542 (ISSN-L)
  • 1931-1516
DOI
10.1037/a0035673
OpenAlex
W2171442103
Cited by
204
References
162
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 1
FWCI
22.23
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Emotion (publishedVersion)
  • Research portal (Tilburg University) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Nostalgia and Consumer Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Keywords
nostalgia, avoidance motivation, approach motivation, motivational regulation, emotion regulation, helping behavior, social distance
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Avoidance Learning, Cross-Sectional Studies, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Motivation, Netherlands, Population Surveillance, Regression Analysis, Social Control, Informal, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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