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Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: a meta-analysis
Abstract
A meta-analytic integration reviews evidence for deindividuation theory as an explanation of collective and antinormative behavior. Deindividuation theories propose a subjective deindividuated state that causes transgression of general social norms. Deindividuation research classically manipulates anonymity, self-awareness, and group size. Results of 60 independent studies showed little support for (a) the occurrence of deindividuated (antinormative) behaviors or (b) the existence of a deindividuated state. Research results were explained mon adequately by situation-specific than by general social norms. Analyses indicated that groups and individuals conform more to situation-specific norms when they are "deindividuated." These findings are inconsistent with deindividuation theory but support a social identity model of deindividuation effects.
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“Greater anonymity is associated with disinhibition and aggressive behavior-potentially because anonymity reduces accountability and thereby licenses bad behavior [12,13].”
From Two social lives: how differences between online and offline interaction influence social outcomes (2020) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Greater anonymity is associated with disinhibition and aggressive behavior-potentially because anonymity reduces accountability and thereby licenses bad behavior [12,13].”
From Two social lives: how differences between online and offline interaction influence social outcomes (2020) · cites this paper as [13]
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A SIDE look at computer-mediated interaction
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“For another, in anonymous situations, people are more likely to say or do things that they would not say or do at face to face time (Postmes & Spears, 1998; Wang et al., 2020a).”
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“Various psychological theories suggest that people regulate their own actions less when immersed in a larger group, owing to deindividuation (Postmes & Spears, 1998), diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latané, 1968) and social loafing (Karau & Williams, 1993).”
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Moor, P. J. (2007) · Cited by 23
Arousal enhances herding tendencies when decision making
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“First, cults use (g) deindividuation tactics (Zimbardo, Ebbesen, & Maslach, 1977) that encourage loss of individuality, loosening of restraints against unusual behavior, and lowered selfand increased group-consciousness (Postmes & Spears, 1998).”
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Modeling Collective Behaviour: Insights and Applications from Crowd Psychology
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“This phenomenon could be account by the psychological state of “de-individuation” [42].”
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Individual–Group Discontinuity in Group–Individual Interactions: Does Size Matter?
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“The Postmes and Spears (1998) meta-analysis found that although the effect sizes were small, group size was one of the few predictors of deindividuation, a possible precursor to competitive behavior.”
BackgroundResultHot Contention, Cool Abstention
Dornschneider, S. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190693916.001.0001 · Cited by 20
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“…has shown that when social identities are salient, group members express strong commitment to group norms especially when they are anonymous and when visual communication between participants is absent (e.g., Postmes & Spears, 1998; Postmes, Spears, & Lea, 1998; Reicher, Spears, & Postmes, 1995).”
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“Like the traditional deindividuation model, SIDE also suggests that anonymity causes deindividuation, but deindividuation is defined as a state in which group members do not have individuating information, that is, information that describes other individuals in their group (Postmes & Spears, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodFrom Information to Smart Society
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“Behavior under conditions that promote deindividuation, including anonymity and submergence in crowds, has since been found to be highly varied and encompassing both pro- and anti-social responses (Postmes and Spears, 1998).”
The Kitty Genovese Murder and the Social Psychology of Helping
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“Subsequently, an accentuation of perceived similarities (with the in-group) and differences (from the out-group) may serve as a catalyst for violent collective action, with situation-specific norms guiding group and individual behaviour (Postmes and Spears, 1998; Reicher, 2001).”
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Dissonance effects as conformity to consistency norms: The effect of anonymity and identity salience
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Aggression und Gewalt: Aktueller Erkenntnistand und Perspektiven künftiger Forschung
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“Scholars have noted that online anonymity actually can enhance normative-collective behavior rather than anti-normative behavior (Lea, Spears, & De Groot, 2001; Postmes & Spears, 1998; Reicher, * 404 Wilson Road, Room 367, Communication Arts and Sciences Building, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.”
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Audit team equality and audit quality threatening behaviour
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“However, deindividuation can also develop prosocial behaviour depending on the context of the group (Postmes and Spears, 1998).”
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“42,43 Deindividuation is similar to the diffusion of responsibility, which occurs when a person becomes a member of a group.”
Playing games: The salience of social cues and group norms in eliciting aggressive behaviour
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“Initial research into the phenomenon concluded that the anonymous individual experienced a state of deindividuation that would automatically lead to antisocial and aggressive behaviour (Postmes & Spears, 1998).”
BackgroundResultA Framework for Explaining Aggression Involving Groups
Meier, B. P., Hinsz, V. B., & Heimerdinger, S. R. (2007) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00015.x · Cited by 15
“© 2007 The Authors Social and Personality Psychology Compass 1 (2007): 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00015.x Journal Compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Postmes and Spears (1998) contend that group members will behave according to situation-specific norms.”
BackgroundInfluentialDisinhibition of stereotyping: context, prejudice, and target characteristics
Kawakami, K., Spears, R., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.106 · Cited by 15
“(See also Postmes & Spears, 1998, for a similar discussion of societal versus local group norms with regard to the deindividuation literature.) For example, with respect to race, Wittenbrink and Henly (1996) manipulated social comparison information by varying the information implied by the choice of response alternat…”
BackgroundSocial Identity in Human-Agent Interaction: A Primer
Seaborn, K. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3760500 · Cited by 17
“– Social creativity : We seek other ways to distinguish our in-group or raise its value, such as by finding other”
Hardworking coworkers: A multilevel cross‐national look at group work hours and work–family conflict
Vaziri, H., Benson, G. S., & Campo, M. S. (2019) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2361 · Cited by 15
WHY DOES ANONYMITY MAKE US MISBEHAVE: DIFFERENT NORMS OR LESS COMPLIANCE?
Krysowski, E., & Tremewan, J. (2020) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/ecin.12955 · Cited by 14
Iacoviello, V., & Spears, R. (2021) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2021.1933582 · Cited by 16
“…effects has argued that the physical absence of other ingroup members can even paradoxically lead to stronger group influence effects because group identity often becomes more salient in the absence of individuals or individuating information in situ (Postmes & Spears, 1998; Spears, 2017, 2021).”
BackgroundThe Use of Meta-analysis in Psychology
Shercliffe, R., Stahl, W., & Tuttle, M. P. (2009) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354309104161 · Cited by 15
Yang, M.-L., Yang, C.-C., & Chiou, W. (2010) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-010-9078-6 · Cited by 14
“Anonymity can produce a dein64 dividuated state (Diener 1979; Postmes and Spears 1998; Zimbardo 1969).”
BackgroundReal Name Verification Law on the Internet: A Poison or Cure for Privacy?
Cho, D. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-1981-5_11 · Cited by 14
“According to classical deindividuation theory, anonymity in the group can lead to reduced self-awareness and influence of social norms that ultimately correspond to antinormative behaviors [23].”
BackgroundMüller, P., Harrendorf, S., & Mischler, A. (2022) · European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10610-022-09509-7 · Cited by 16
“They have been confirmed in various experiments (Postmes & Spears, 1998; Postmes et al., 2001), and it is plausible to assume that they are also of importance for online radicalisation processes (just see Rieger et al., 2020).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Postmes, T., & Spears, R.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1998-05
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 238-259
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2031296644
- Cited by
- 667
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 37.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- deindividuation, social norms, anonymity, self-awareness, group size, social identity model, collective behavior, conformity
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