Two social lives: how differences between online and offline interaction influence social outcomes
Open accessAbstract
For hundreds of thousands of years, humans only communicated in person, but in just the past fifty years they have started also communicating online. Today, people communicate more online than offline. What does this shift mean for human social life? We identify four structural differences between online (versus offline) interaction: (1) fewer nonverbal cues, (2) greater anonymity, (3) more opportunity to form new social ties and bolster weak ties, and (4) wider dissemination of information. Each of these differences underlies systematic psychological and behavioral consequences. Online and offline lives often intersect; we thus further review how online engagement can (1) disrupt or (2) enhance offline interaction. This work provides a useful framework for studying the influence of technology on social life (119/120).
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review proposes a framework organizing the psychological and behavioral consequences of online versus offline interaction around four structural differences: fewer nonverbal cues, greater anonymity, more opportunity to form and bolster ties, and wider dissemination of information. It further reviews how online engagement can either disrupt or enhance offline social connection.
Key findings
- Four structural differences between online and offline interaction each carry systematic consequences: text-based communication reduces observers' accuracy in judging communicators' thoughts and feelings and makes communicators appear less thoughtful and emotional (i.e., potentially dehumanizing), while hearing a voice uniquely humanizes.
- Anonymity licenses disinhibition and aggression, but can also inhibit connection: in a field experiment randomizing 100,000 online daters to anonymous versus non-anonymous profile viewing, anonymized users viewed more profiles but ended up with fewer matches.
- Online media expand network size (average 338 Facebook Friends) but do not appear to change the number of significant contacts, which remains around 5 intimate friends, 15 close friends, 50 general friends, and 150 acquaintances; larger networks (>40) mean less time spent with each contact.
- Wider dissemination cuts both ways: in an analysis of 126,000 stories from 2006–2017, false stories spread more widely and quickly than true ones, and machine learning models identified users' political affiliation (Democrat vs. Republican) with 85% accuracy.
Methods
- Narrative review / conceptual framework paper (Current Opinion in Psychology), not an empirical study; no primary data collection or analysis is reported.
- The authors synthesize prior findings, including cited experiments and field studies (e.g., the 100,000-dater anonymity experiment; the 126,000-story diffusion analysis; smartphone-use experiments on parental attention and navigation), to illustrate each structural difference.
- Organization is thematic: four structural differences, then a section on how online interaction disrupts or enhances offline interaction, followed by proposed future research questions.
Limitations
- The paper states no limitations; it declares only "Nothing declared" under Conflict.
- Evident from the text: this is a selective narrative review rather than a systematic one, so the cited evidence is illustrative rather than exhaustive, and the four-difference framework is proposed rather than empirically tested.
- Several claims rest on single studies or working papers (e.g., the voice/paralanguage working paper, individual field experiments), and the authors themselves flag open questions about how evolving technologies (video chat, customizable voices) may blur the online–offline distinction.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 92 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Interpretationnone given
Online interaction, compared with offline interaction, provides fewer nonverbal cues.
“Relative to offline communication, online interactions provide (1) fewer nonverbal cues, (2) greater potential for anonymity, (3) more opportunity to form new social ties and to bolster existing weak ties, and (4) wider dissemination of information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Online interaction, compared with offline interaction, offers greater potential for anonymity.
“Relative to offline communication, online interactions provide (1) fewer nonverbal cues, (2) greater potential for anonymity, (3) more opportunity to form new social ties and to bolster existing weak ties, and (4) wider dissemination of information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Online interaction, compared with offline interaction, allows wider dissemination of information.
“Relative to offline communication, online interactions provide (1) fewer nonverbal cues, (2) greater potential for anonymity, (3) more opportunity to form new social ties and to bolster existing weak ties, and (4) wider dissemination of information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Social media can serve as a catalyst for moral outrage and social conflict.
“Indeed, recent research suggests that social media can serve as a catalyst for moral outrage and social conflict [16 ,17].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisenone given
Online interaction allows passive browsing, letting people view others' profiles or read their opinions without their awareness.
“Online interaction allows for passive browsing, whereby one can look at others' social profiles or read their opinions without their awareness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Premisecitation
Observers are more likely to believe an ambiguous agent is human rather than a machine when hearing a human voice, compared with reading human-created text or seeing a human communicator.
“Directly supporting this possibility, one set of experiments demonstrates that observers are more likely to believe an ambiguous agent is a human (versus a machine) when hearing a human voice-compared to reading human-created text or seeing a human communicator [9].”
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- Interpretationcitation
Anonymity may reduce accountability and thereby license bad behavior.
“Greater anonymity is associated with disinhibition and aggressive behavior-potentially because anonymity reduces accountability and thereby licenses bad behavior [12,13].”
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- cites [13] source
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- Premisecitation
Nonverbal variance in speech (e.g., pitch, pace) is associated with judgments of communicators' mental capacities.
“These experiments also provide early insight into why a person's voice is humanizing: the nonverbal variance in speech (e.g.variance in pitch, pace) is associated with judgments of communicators' mental capacities;”
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- Premisecitation
There are circumstances in which observers are more accurate when only hearing a communicator speak than when both hearing and seeing her.
“There are even circumstances under which observers may be more accurate when hearing a communicator speak than when hearing and seeing her [7].”
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- Premisecitation
Communicators whose voices lack nonverbal variance are not judged differently from communicators whose opinions are read via text.
“therefore, communicators with voices which lack such variance (and therefore sound machine-like) are not judged differently from communicators whose opinions are read via text.”
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- Premisecitation
Reading a communicator's opinions via text, compared with hearing the same message via speech, reduces observers' accuracy in assessing the communicator's true thoughts and feelings.
“First, reading a communicator's opinions via text (e.g. in an email) compared to hearing exactly the same message via speech (e.g. a voice message), decreases observers' ability to accurately assess the communicator's true (self-reported) thoughts and feelings [4,5].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Losing access to vocal paralinguistic cues can reduce feelings of social connection.
“Another consequence is that losing access to vocal paralinguistic cues can reduce feelings of social connection [8].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8]
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- Interpretationreasoning
People can anonymously observe others more frequently and easily than ever before.
“As such, people are able to anonymously observe others more frequently and easily than ever before.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Online environments that cater to anonymity and weakened social norms may foster disinhibited and aggressive behaviors.
“Online environmentswhich cater to anonymity and weakened social norms-may serve as a breeding ground for such behaviors [14,15].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
Hearing a communicator's voice uniquely provides insight into her mental states, perhaps more than watching her speak.
“This suggests that hearing communicators' voices uniquely provides insight into their mental states-perhaps more so than watching them speak [6].”
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- Premisecitation
Greater anonymity is associated with disinhibition and aggressive behavior.
“Greater anonymity is associated with disinhibition and aggressive behavior-potentially because anonymity reduces accountability and thereby licenses bad behavior [12,13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [12]
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- cites [13] source
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- Premisecitation
Seeing a communicator in addition to hearing her does not further improve accuracy in assessing her mental states.
“However, seeing a communicator in addition to hearing her does not further improve accuracy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6]
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- Interpretationnone given
Online engagement can disrupt offline interaction.
“Online and offline lives often intersect; we thus further review how online engagement can (1) disrupt or (2) enhance offline interaction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In a field experiment, anonymized online daters were less inhibited in the number and type of profiles they viewed.
“They found that while anonymized users were less inhibited in the number and type of profiles they viewed, they also ended up with fewer matches.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] source
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- Premisecitation
In the final months before the 2016 election, there was more engagement with fake news on Facebook than with articles from major news outlets.
“Similarly, in the final months leading up to the 2016 election, there was more engagement with fake news on Facebook than with articles from major news outlets [31].”
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- Interpretationcitation
Leaving a record of profile views sent a weak signal of interest, increasing match outcomes.
“By leaving a record of profile views, the non-anonymous viewers sent a weak signal of interest, increasing their match outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In the same field experiment, anonymized online daters ended up with fewer matches.
“They found that while anonymized users were less inhibited in the number and type of profiles they viewed, they also ended up with fewer matches.”
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- Premisecitation
The number of significant contacts is constrained by brain size and chemistry and by the time required to maintain meaningful relationships.
“This threshold, Dunbar suggests, is imposed by brain size and chemistry, as well as the time it takes to maintain meaningful relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] source
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- Premisecitation
Homophily may be a bigger predictor of reaching out to individuals online than offline.
“For one, although homophily drives relationship-formation both online and offline, it may be a bigger predictor of reaching out to individuals online [25].”
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- Interpretationcitation
Online anonymity can inhibit meaningful social connection.
“Online anonymity can also inhibit meaningful social connection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Homophily drives relationship formation both online and offline.
“For one, although homophily drives relationship-formation both online and offline, it may be a bigger predictor of reaching out to individuals online [25].”
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- Premisecitation
People who made online partner selections from a large choice set were less satisfied with their decision the following week than those who chose from a small set.
“In one set of laboratory experiments, people who made online partner selections from a large (versus small) choice set were less satisfied with their decision the following week [24].”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Many individuals can access a significantly larger audience more easily and quickly online than offline.
“As a result, many individuals can access a significantly larger audience more easily and quickly online than offline”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Despite social media's growth, the number of significant contacts people report remains similar to before social media: about 5 intimate friends, 15 close friends, 50 general friends, and 150 acquaintances.
“One study of Facebook users found that despite social media's explosion, the number of significant contacts that people report remains similar to before the rise of social media: around 5 intimate friends, 15 close friends, 50 general friends, and 150 acquaintances [22].”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Connecting with someone online (e.g., following or friending a celebrity) provides fertile ground to form parasocial relationships.
“Connecting with someone online (e.g.following or friending a celebrity) provides fertile ground to form parasocial relationships (one-sided psychological relationships).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Cognitive and temporal constraints may limit the number of friends a person can maintain.
“Thus, cognitive and temporal constraints may limit the number of friends a person can maintain.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The larger a person's network (above 40), the less time they spend engaging with each contact.
“Moreover, the larger a person's network (>40), the less time they spend engaging with each contact [23].”
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- Premisecitation
Social media can operate as a tool for political persuasion.
“This is one reason why social media can operate as a tool for political persuasion [28,29].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Feeling snubbed by phone use can increase motivation to seek social connection in other ways, such as online.
“Further, feeling snubbed as a result of someone else using a phone during a face-to-face interaction ('phubbed') can lead to feelings of social exclusion and increase motivation to seek out social connection other ways, such as online [41].”
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- Premisecitation
Feeling snubbed because someone else used a phone during a face-to-face interaction can lead to feelings of social exclusion.
“Further, feeling snubbed as a result of someone else using a phone during a face-to-face interaction ('phubbed') can lead to feelings of social exclusion and increase motivation to seek out social connection other ways, such as online [41].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41]
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- Premisecitation
An advertisement's fit with consumers can influence the degree to which consumers feel socially connected to the brand.
“When using social media, both a firm's communication style and an advertisement's fit with consumers can influence the degree to which consumers trust [38] and feel socially connected to the brand [39].”
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- Premisecitation
The mere presence of one's smartphone is distracting.
“The mere presence of having one's smartphone is distracting (e.g.[40]) and can reduce the effectiveness of offline connection.”
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- Premisecitation
Parents assigned to use smartphones frequently while with their children reported feeling less attentive.
“To highlight one example, parents who were assigned to use their smartphones frequently (versus infrequently) while with their children reported feeling less attentive and consequently less socially connected to them [43].”
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- Premisecitation
Passive use of social media (e.g., lurking) has been associated with increased loneliness and lowered well-being.
“Further, the passive use of social media, in particular (e.g.lurking behaviors; scrolling through others' feeds without actually engaging), has been associated with increased loneliness and lowered well-being [51,52,53 ,54 ,55].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
Parents who felt less attentive consequently felt less socially connected to their children.
“To highlight one example, parents who were assigned to use their smartphones frequently (versus infrequently) while with their children reported feeling less attentive and consequently less socially connected to them [43].”
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- Premisecitation
Phone use during social interaction can reduce feelings of social connection.
“Phone use during social interaction can reduce feelings of social connection [41,42 ,43,44], the perceived quality of the interaction [45,46], enjoyment gained from the interaction [47 ], and even frequency of smiling at others [48].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked - Premisecitation
Individuals assigned to navigate to a new location using a smartphone were able to find the location more easily than those without a phone.
“As another example, individuals assigned to navigate to a new location using their smartphone (versus no phone) were able to find the location more easily but also felt less socially connected [42 ].”
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Phone use during social interaction can reduce enjoyment gained from the interaction.
“Phone use during social interaction can reduce feelings of social connection [41,42 ,43,44], the perceived quality of the interaction [45,46], enjoyment gained from the interaction [47 ], and even frequency of smiling at others [48].”
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- Premisecitation
Taking photos with the intention of sharing them can increase self-presentation concerns, thereby decreasing experiential engagement and subsequent enjoyment.
“Specifically, when taking photos increases experiential engagement, it can enhance enjoyment [49], but taking photos with the intention of sharing them can increase self-presentation concerns and thus decrease experiential engagement and subsequent enjoyment [50].”
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- Premisecitation
Individuals assigned to navigate using a smartphone felt less socially connected than those without a phone.
“As another example, individuals assigned to navigate to a new location using their smartphone (versus no phone) were able to find the location more easily but also felt less socially connected [42 ].”
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- Premisecitation
Phone use during social interaction can reduce the perceived quality of the interaction.
“Phone use during social interaction can reduce feelings of social connection [41,42 ,43,44], the perceived quality of the interaction [45,46], enjoyment gained from the interaction [47 ], and even frequency of smiling at others [48].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
The mere presence of one's smartphone can reduce the effectiveness of offline connection.
“The mere presence of having one's smartphone is distracting (e.g.[40]) and can reduce the effectiveness of offline connection.”
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- Premisecitation
Matching a message to an audience's personality improves its effectiveness.
“and matching a message to an audience's personality improves its effectiveness [36 ].”
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- Premisecitation
When taking photos increases experiential engagement, it can enhance enjoyment.
“Specifically, when taking photos increases experiential engagement, it can enhance enjoyment [49], but taking photos with the intention of sharing them can increase self-presentation concerns and thus decrease experiential engagement and subsequent enjoyment [50].”
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- Premisecitation
Phone use during social interaction can reduce frequency of smiling at others.
“Phone use during social interaction can reduce feelings of social connection [41,42 ,43,44], the perceived quality of the interaction [45,46], enjoyment gained from the interaction [47 ], and even frequency of smiling at others [48].”
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- Premisecitation
A firm's communication style can influence the degree to which consumers trust the brand.
“When using social media, both a firm's communication style and an advertisement's fit with consumers can influence the degree to which consumers trust [38] and feel socially connected to the brand [39].”
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- Premisecitation
In the same experiment, patients who text messaged during surgery required less pain medication than patients who did not.
“In one experiment, text messaging reduced anxiety during a negative experience: Patients who text messaged during surgery felt more socially supported and required less pain medication than patients who did not [59].”
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- Interpretationcitation
Internet gaming can serve as a tool for social connection.
“While the majority of attention has focused on the potential negative consequences of internet gaming (e.g.addiction [62];), it can also serve as a tool for social connection.”
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- Interpretationnone given
Relationships that begin online often continue offline or in mixed media.
“These relationships may begin online, but often continue offline or in mixedmedia.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The Internet provides opportunity for developing new offline relationships.
“First, the Internet provides opportunity for developing new offline relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
27% of adults ages 18-24 report using some form of online dating website or app.
“and 27% of adults ages 18-24 report using some form of online dating website or app [57].”
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Among teens who play games, the vast majority say gaming makes them feel more connected to others, both existing friends and people they only know through gaming.
“Among teens who play games, the vast majority report playing with others (83% in person and 75% online) and say it makes them feel more connected to others, both friends they already know and people they only know through gaming [1].”
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Online interactions can complement and strengthen existing personal connections.
“Online interactions can not only build new connections, but they can also complement and strengthen existing personal connections [51,52,54 ,58].”
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In America, one-third of marriages began online.
“Further, in America, one-third of marriages began online [56]”
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Online interaction can provide support when offline interaction is impossible or scarce.
“Second, online interaction can provide support when offline interaction is impossible or scarce [54 ].”
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- Interpretationcitation
The recent shift from offline to online interactions has fundamentally changed how humans socialize and communicate.
“The recent shift from offline to online interactions has fundamentally changed the way humans socialize and communicate, creating controversy about the impact of digital technology on well-being [63,64 ,65].”
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In an experiment, patients who text messaged during surgery felt more socially supported than patients who did not.
“In one experiment, text messaging reduced anxiety during a negative experience: Patients who text messaged during surgery felt more socially supported and required less pain medication than patients who did not [59].”
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- Interpretationcitation
There are at least three ways in which online interaction can enhance offline interaction.
“Despite the disruptive potential of online interaction, there are at least three ways in which online interaction can also enhance offline interaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Online communication can contain textual paralanguage that approximates nonverbal cues of in-person interaction.
“Interestingly, online communication can contain 'textual paralanguage' (textual representations of nonverbal expressions, e.g.sigh, eye roll) which approximate the nonverbal cues of an in-person interaction[3].”
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- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
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Interpretationnone givenOnline interaction, compared with offline interaction, offers more opportunity to form new social ties and to strengthen weak ties.
“Relative to offline communication, online interactions provide (1) fewer nonverbal cues, (2) greater potential for anonymity, (3) more opportunity to form new social ties and to bolster existing weak ties, and (4) wider dissemination of information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenEach of the four structural differences between online and offline interaction produces systematic psychological and behavioral consequences.
“These structural differences lead to systematic psychological and behavioral consequences that are functionally changing the landscape of social life.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The four structural differences identified are the primary drivers of the psychological and behavioral consequences of online interaction.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenOnline engagement can enhance offline interaction.
“Online and offline lives often intersect; we thus further review how online engagement can (1) disrupt or (2) enhance offline interaction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenOnline and offline social lives often intersect.
“Online and offline lives often intersect; we thus further review how online engagement can (1) disrupt or (2) enhance offline interaction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationReading, versus hearing, a person's opinions makes the communicator appear less mentally capable-less thoughtful and emotional.
“Second, reading, versus hearing, ones' opinions also makes the communicator appear less mentally capable-less thoughtful and emotional [9,10 ].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationText-based interaction may be dehumanizing because derogating a person's mental capacities is a form of dehumanization.
“This suggests that text-based interaction may be dehumanizing, since derogating a person's mental capacities is a form of dehumanization [11].”
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InterpretationreasoningCommunicating via text online can reduce understanding of others' thoughts and feelings compared with speaking offline, potentially causing miscommunication.
“One consequence of communicating via text online, therefore, is that it can reduce people's understanding of others' thoughts and feelings (compared to communicating in speech offline), provoking possible miscommunication.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenIn offline interactions, audience size is limited by physical room size; in online interactions, there is hardly any limit to audience size.
“In offline interactions, the size of one's audience is limited by the physical size of the room; in online interactions, there is hardly any limit to audience size.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn an experiment, sponsorship disclosure influenced individuals only when the post was made by a celebrity, not when made by a brand.
“They were only influenced by the disclosure when the post was made by a celebrity, suggesting that people assumed sponsorship when a post was made by a brand, but not when made by a celebrity [32].”
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Interpretationnone givenThe sheer size of one's audience can increase the effectiveness of persuasive appeals and make crowd-sourcing feedback quicker and more efficient.
“The sheer size of one's audience can increase the effectiveness of persuasive appeals and make crowd-sourcing feedback quicker and more efficient.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationPeople assumed sponsorship when a post was made by a brand, but not when made by a celebrity.
“They were only influenced by the disclosure when the post was made by a celebrity, suggesting that people assumed sponsorship when a post was made by a brand, but not when made by a celebrity [32].”
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PremisecitationPeople may view parasocial online connections as friends and be less guarded to persuasion attempts, thus enhancing celebrity influence.
“As a result, people may view these parasocial online connections as 'friends,' and be less guarded to persuasion attempts, thus enhancing celebrity influence [32][33][34].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCyberbullying and online victimization has become a public health concern.
“Relatedly, cyberbullying and online victimization has become a public health concern [18]”
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PremisecitationIn an analysis of 126,000 stories from 2006 to 2017, false stories spread more widely and more quickly than true stories.
“in one analysis of 126 000 stories from 2006 to 2017, false stories spread more widely and more quickly than true stores [30 ].”
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PremisereasoningSharing content online is easier and more accessible than sharing via mass media, allowing more people to broadcast more content to more people.
“Sharing content online is easier and more accessible than sharing it via mass media (e.g.television, radio), allowing a greater number of people to broadcast more content to more people (e.g.posting, tweeting, and live-streaming as much and as often as they choose).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenOnline technology makes it easier to expand and maintain social networks and eliminates barriers posed by geographical distance.
“Online technology allows millions of people worldwide to communicate effortlessly, making it easier to expand and maintain social networks, and eliminating barriers posed by geographical distance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationOnline interaction can harm well-being and reduce sociality if it displaces in-person connections.
“Online interaction can harm well-being and reduce sociality if it displaces in-person connections [51,52,53 ,54 ].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMachine learning models can estimate social media users' personal attributes with surprising accuracy; one model correctly identified Democrat or Republican 85% of the time.
“For example, machine learning models can estimate social media users' personal attributes with surprising accuracy (under one model, correctly identifying Democrat or Republican 85% of the time [35]);”
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InterpretationreasoningThe process of tailoring messages is larger scale and more data-driven online than offline.
“Although people tailor messages offline as well, the process of tailoring is larger scale and more datadriven online.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenOnline and offline interactions often bleed into one another.
“Despite the many differences in the structure and psychology of online and offline communication, these interactions often bleed into one another.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAd campaigns can be designed to increase the likelihood that they are shared (go viral).
“Ad campaigns can be designed to increase the likelihood that they are shared (i.e.go viral [37])”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [37] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationFirms often leverage social media to connect with consumers and increase purchase intentions.
“and firms often leverage social media to connect with consumers and increase purchase intentions [32].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe consequences of digital technology can be categorized by the structural differences between online and offline platforms and by whether technologies harm or enhance offline connection.
“The consequences of digital technology can be categorized based on the structural differences between online (versus offline) platforms-fewer nonverbal cues, more anonymity, more flexible network selection, and wider audience-and the ways in which technologies harm or enhance offline connection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation57% of teenagers report having made at least one new friend online, and 29% report having made more than five friends online.
“For example, 57% of teenagers report having made at least one new friend online and 29% report having made more than five friends online (Lenhart, 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lenhart, 2015
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAmong teens who play games, 83% report playing with others in person and 75% online.
“Among teens who play games, the vast majority report playing with others (83% in person and 75% online) and say it makes them feel more connected to others, both friends they already know and people they only know through gaming [1].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe internet can be used as a tool to collaborate with others and organize social groups or movements.
“Third, the internet can be used as a tool to collaborate with others and organize social groups or movements (e.g.[60]).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [60] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone givenThe internet provides an avenue for social interaction through multiplayer games.
“The internet also provides an avenue for social interaction through multiplayer games (games in which multiple people play together in the same gaming environment).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThere is controversy about the impact of digital technology on well-being.
“The recent shift from offline to online interactions has fundamentally changed the way humans socialize and communicate, creating controversy about the impact of digital technology on well-being [63,64 ,65].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
The paper relies on this without support.
Online and offline interaction can be treated as distinct structural categories for comparison.
“To more clearly understand the consequences of these different interaction media, we propose four key structural differences between them.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The four structural differences identified are the primary drivers of the psychological and behavioral consequences of online interaction.
“These structural differences lead to systematic psychological and behavioral consequences that are functionally changing the landscape of social life.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from the cited studies are valid and generalizable to the populations discussed.
“This paper provides a new framework for organizing the extant literature.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The absence of nonverbal cues in text-based social media may exaggerate the perceived intensity of users' outrage.
“the absence of nonverbal cues that are essential in face-to-face communication may exaggerate the perceived intensity of users' outrage (Lieberman & Schroeder 2020)”
From Social Media and Morality. (2024) · cites this paper as Lieberman & Schroeder 2020
The “Fewer nonverbal cues online” section (page not provided) says text-based platforms lack nonverbal cues and that reading opinions rather than hearing them can impair judgments of a communicator’s feelings. The “Greater anonymity online” section separately discusses moral outrage on social media. Neither passage says that missing cues exaggerate the perceived intensity of users’ outrage. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPhones should result in negative effects on well-being only when they displace or interfere with activities essential for well-being and with nondigital experiences that afford a greater source of well-being than their digital counterparts.
“Rather, phones should result in negative effects on well-being only when they displace or interfere with activities essential for well-being (e.g., sleep) and with nondigital experiences that afford a greater source of well-being than their digital counterparts [37].”
From The effects of smartphones on well-being: theoretical integration and research agenda (2020) · cites this paper as [37]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Teen gaming claim cites a report about adults' internet use
MinorThe claim about teens playing games with others cites reference 1, whose listed title concerns how often U.S. adults go online, not teen gaming.
“Among teens who play games, the vast majority report playing with others (83% in person and 75% online) and say it makes them feel more connected to others, both friends they already know and people they only know through gaming [1].”
“1. Pew Research: About a Quarter of U.S. Adults Say They Are 'Almost Constantly' Online. 2018 .”
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BackgroundThe effect of social media apps on shopping apps
Yoon, J., Lee, C., Choi, J., Chang, S., & Kim, J. (2022) · Journal of business research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.04.021 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
O’Reilly, C., Maher, P., Lüders, A., & Quayle, M. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103751 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
An analysis of mental health of social media users using unsupervised approach
Joshi, D., & Patwardhan, M. S. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2020.100036 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
O’Reilly, C., Maher, P. J., Smith, E. M., MacCarron, P., & Quayle, M. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3000 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Privacy Mismatch: Evolved Intuitions in a Digital World
Shariff, A., Green, J., & Jettinghoff, W. (2021) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721421990355 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In this new form of technology-mediated communication, users often self-disclose to a large, unseen, and heterogeneous group (Lieberman & Schroeder, 2020).”
BackgroundThe scaling of social interactions across animal species
Rocha, L. E. C., Ryckebusch, J., Schoors, K., & Smith, M. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-92025-1 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
A voice inside my head: The psychological and behavioral consequences of auditory technologies
Lieberman, A., Schroeder, J., & Amir, O. (2022) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2022.104133 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationThe importance of high quality real-life social interactions during the COVID-19 pandemic
Monninger, M., Aggensteiner, P.-M., Pollok, T. M., Kaiser, A., Reinhard, I., Hermann, A., Reichert, M., Ebner‐Priemer, U., Meyer‐Lindenberg, A., Brandeis, D., et al. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30803-9 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Towards a Critical Framework of Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Literature Review
Valle, N., Zhao, P., Freed, D., Gorton, K., Chapman, A. B., Shea, A., & Bazarova, N. N. (2024) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543241247224 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…can influence users’ information-seeking behaviors, self-presentation concerns and impression formation, self-disclosure, online group dynamics, and political expression (Clark-Gordon et al., 2019; Fox & McEwan, 2017; Jiang et al., 2011; Lane et al., 2019; Lieberman & Schroeder, 2020; Scott, 2004).”
Wang, M. S., & Tracey, P. (2023) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2021.0388 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Understanding the user perception of digital nudging in platform interface design
Hettler, F. M., Schumacher, J.-P., Anton, E., Eybey, B., & Teuteberg, F. (2024) · Electronic Commerce Research · doi:10.1007/s10660-024-09825-6 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The vast - ness of online content can engender information overload, especially when faced with a multitude of product options and their respective features [3 – 5].”
Elhai, J. D., Casale, S., & Bond, R. A. (2025) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2025.103037 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Distributive effervescence: emotional energy and social cohesion in secularizing societies
McCaffree, K. J., & Shults, F. L. (2021) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-021-09470-0 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Prevalence and intervention strategies of health misinformation among older adults: A meta-analysis
Hu, B., Liu, X., Lu, C. F., & Ju, X. (2024) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053241298362 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“When assessments are conducted offline, they often involve more non-verbal communication and potential social connections (Lieberman and Schroeder, 2020), which may increase trust in the information provided by researchers (Glanville et al., 2013; Paladin, 2010).”
The impact of internet use on old-age support patterns of middle-aged and older adults
Wang, J., Gao, L., Wang, G., & Hu, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1059346 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Some relationships may start online, but usually continue offline or in a mixed media form (33).”
BackgroundVeneziani, G., Ciacchella, C., Onorati, P., & Lai, C. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108195 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Cheng, J., He, X., Wen, J., & Su, L. (2024) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.jhtm.2024.07.002 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Tuan, A., Visentin, M., & Domenico, G. D. (2023) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1177/10949968221136862 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Sociability Networks in the City of Bujumbura
Toyi, O., & Sindayigaya, I. (2023) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2023.118016 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Facial behaviour and first impressions in computer mediated communication
Rollings, J., Kavanagh, E., Balabanova, A., Keane, O., & Waller, B. M. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108391 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Rafnsson, S. B., Maharani, A., & Tampubolon, G. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab029 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Guo, M., & Liu, Z. (2025) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/09593543251319738 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“However, the dynamics of social interaction have undergone significant transformation in recent decades, which have seen a decrease in offline interactions and a notable increase in online interactions mediated by technology (Lieberman & Schroeder, 2020).”
Diplomatic Representation and Online/Offline Interactions: EU Coordination and Digital Sociability
Hedling, E. (2024) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqae022 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Li, S., Jiang, H., Ding, Z., et al. (2023) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107590 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Altamirano, M. J. U., Jaña, C. E. M., & Osorio, F. (2020) · Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación · doi:10.21703/rexe.20201941umana2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Naranjo-Zolotov, M., Acedo, A., & Lascano, J. E. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09990 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Doctors” or “Influencers”? Physicians’ Presentation of Self in Health VlogsPreprint
Atef, N., Fleerackers, A., & Alperín, J. P. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/2rbt7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Liu, C., Liu, Y., Liu, C., Lin, R., Wang, X., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., & Wang, D. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/57907 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“For example, empirical evidence has found that problematic internet use (PIU) and internet addiction [12-16] increase the likelihood of depression, anxiety, social isolation, and even suicide [7,17-22].”
DeGroot-Based Opinion Formation Under a Global Steering Mechanism
Conjeaud, I., Lorenz-Spreen, P., & Kalogeratos, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems · doi:10.1109/tcss.2023.3330293 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The landscape in which modern public debate takes place, includes national and international broadcasting media, and more recently online social networking platforms, which have altered the way and the speed with which people exchange † I.C. and A.K contributed equally to this work.”
BackgroundDevelopmental needs of adolescents in the online lifeworld in the context of youth work
Todorović, D., Sieckelinck, S., Manders, W. A., van der Linden, J., & Timmerman, M. (2023) · European Social Work Research · doi:10.1332/oxmm1218 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bleckmann, E., Nestler, S., & Wagner, J. (2023) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12883 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Sirola, A., Savolainen, I., & Oksanen, A. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112709 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Gronewold, J., & Engels, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2022.729621 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Compared to in-person contacts, virtual contacts provide fewer non-verbal cues, greater potential for anonymity, more opportunity to form new social ties and bolster weak ties, and wider dissemination of information (Lieberman and Schroeder, 2020).”
BackgroundAdolescents’ Real-Time Social and Affective Experiences of Online and Face-to-Face InteractionsPreprint
Achterhof, R., Kirtley, O. J., Schneider, M., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/yp2hc · Cited by 9 · see citing works
He, Z., & Chen, M. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108276 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kujansivu, K., Tolvanen, E., Kautto, M., & Koskela, T. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care · doi:10.1080/02813432.2024.2391406 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…the patient and PcP [5]. considering communication, PcPs have stated that important non-verbal communication is lost in remote consultations [4]. this loss of non-verbal communication can also affect clinical decision-making [4, 10,11]. in addition, communicating by writing is challenging [12].”
Singh, A., Ishrat, A., Barthwal, T., Rani, A., & Mishra, M. (2025) · On the Horizon The International Journal of Learning Futures · doi:10.1108/oth-11-2024-0075 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Muñoz, K. E. (2022) · Journal of Tourism Futures · doi:10.1108/jtf-09-2021-0232 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Before meeting or travelling in the physical realm, however, the reciprocation of trustworthy and intimate behaviours surrounds the concept of self-disclosure and should be given due consideration (Carpenter and Greene, 2015; Lieberman and Schroeder, 2020).”
BackgroundKroencke, L., Harari, G. M., Back, M. D., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/g6s8f · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Сергеевна, Ц. Э., Mararitsa, L. V., Gundelakh, O. E., Lopatina, O. L., & Koltsova, O. Y. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61312-8_3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Network analysis of peer attachment and internet addiction among chinese adolescents
Feng, X., Wang, W., Luo, J., Zhang, J., Peng, C., & Liu, Q. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-95526-5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Furthermore, online interactions often consist of simple information exchange and lack the emotional depth and complexity of real-life social interactions 58,60 .”
Wilder, T. L., & Stratchan, N. E. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15020165 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Douma, L. N., Tharner, A., Sterkenburg, P. S., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2023.2190115 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Perceived-Social Isolation and Cyberbullying Involvement
Piccoli, V., Carnaghi, A., Bianchi, M., & Grassi, M. (2022) · International Journal of Cyber Behavior Psychology and Learning · doi:10.4018/ijcbpl.313948 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Walsh, S. D., Elgar, F. J., Craig, W., Cosma, A. P., Donnelly, P., Harel‐Fisch, Y., Molcho, M., Malinowska-Cieślik, M., Ng, K., & Pickett, W. (2025) · International Journal of Bullying Prevention · doi:10.1007/s42380-025-00296-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lazarus, S. I., Lazarus, S. I., Olaigbe, O., et al. (2026) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2026.2615696 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pauw, L. S. (2023) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101597 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lamot, K., Cools, H., & Gevers, I. (2024) · Journalism Studies · doi:10.1080/1461670x.2024.2359497 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This sharing and engaging with news content can foster a sense of community and belonging, which can be especially important for people who may feel isolated or disconnected in their o ffl ine lives (Lieberman and Schroeder 2020).”
BackgroundJohnson, J., Brooks, T. R., Hebert, M., & Reysen, S. (2024) · Journal of Psychosexual Health · doi:10.1177/26318318241265443 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“38 For many BDSM/kink practitioners, attending social events is highly valued and an integral part of their BDSM/ kink lifestyle.”
Is secure messaging an effective tool for inpatient communication?
Knees, M., Flynn, S. J., Hsiang, E. Y., et al. (2025) · Journal of Hospital Medicine · doi:10.1002/jhm.70090 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chen, Y., Wei, M., & Ortiz, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1085256 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
AI-Assisted Shopping on Voice Assistants: The Efficiency–Autonomy Consumer Decision Trade-Off
Mari, A., Mandelli, A., & Algesheimer, R. (2025) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1177/10949968251400616 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In summary, VAs ’ unique features heighten decision dif fi - culty and may alter the consumer decision-making process (Lieberman and Schroeder 2020).”
Kagwa, A. S., Longhini, J., Islam, M. N., Vikström, S., Dorell, Å., Konradsen, H., & Kabir, Z. N. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/75113 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This variance between the interplay of interacting through the chat and meeting in person needs consideration, since text-based platforms, including the mobile app STAV, lack nonverbal cues, which can be expressed through in-person conversations (ie, touch and facial expressions) [49].”
DyCoDa: A Multi-modal Data Collection of Multi-user Remote Survival Game Recordings
Dresvyanskiy, D., Sinha, Y., Busch, M., et al. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20980-2_15 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Wang, X., & Qiu, X. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2212863 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Some scholars, however, argued that online and offline socializing are structurally different (Hattingh et al., 2022; Lieberman & Schroeder, 2020).”
Levine, M. (2025) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12896 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“In making this case I am aware that there is a body of work on the similarities and differences between behaviours exhibited online vs. offline (e.g. Lieberman & Schroeder, 2020) or on behaviours in virtual or augmented reality (e.g. Blascovich et al., 2002; Fox et al., 2009).”
Soni, N., Sahoo, P., Kumar, S., Yaqub, M. Z., & Singhal, A. B. (2025) · Information Technology and People · doi:10.1108/itp-08-2024-0976 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Nordbrandt, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2022.921188 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“When political topics come up online, it is easier to be a passive observer (Lieberman and Schroeder, 2020).”
BackgroundThe Effects of Smartphones on Well-Being: Theoretical Integration and Research AgendaPreprint
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“, sleep) and with nondigital experiences that afford a greater source of well-being than their digital counterparts [37].”
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Xiao, J. (2024) · Advances in Social Behavior Research · doi:10.54254/2753-7102/6/2024047 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ziegler, M. T., & Lütge, C. (2024) · International Journal of Ethics and Systems · doi:10.1108/ijoes-07-2023-0150 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Li, S., Zhang, L., Sun, Y., & Li, F. (2024) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13394 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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“Experiences of digital exclusion—such as omission from messaging groups, neglect in online forums, or negative feedback in virtual interactions— elicit psychological and emotional responses similar to those associated with face-to-face rejection [5, 6].”
Pennington, C. R., Murray, E. A. H., Kaye, L. K., Burgess, A., Kessler, K., & Shaw, D. J. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100753 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Janickyj, M., Blom, N., & Tanczer, L. M. (2025) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azaf064 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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“Importantly, online communication allows for fewer nonverbal cues, greater anonymity, more opportunity to form new social ties and bolster weak ties, and wider dissemination of information (Lieberman & Schroeder, 2020).”
Zheng, C., Liu, M., Gong, H., & Wang, H. (2024) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2024.2429901 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“These findings suggest that in the contexts of ads or online scenarios, where anonymity prevails and social norms are weakened (Lieberman and Schroeder 2020), the ‘watching eyes’ paradigm may not apply, potentially altering the comparative effects of direct versus averted gaze. furthermore, ads or…”
- Authors
- Lieberman, A., & Schroeder, J.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schroeder, Juliana
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-02
- Volume
- 31
- Pages
- 16-21
- ISSN
- 2352-250X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2955402589
- Semantic Scholar
- a12caf032505677deb5d8db8d35c7cdf7f6b1167
- Cited by
- 252
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 9
- FWCI
- 3.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- escholarship.org
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Digital Communication and Language
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Media and Digital Communication
- Keywords
- online interaction, offline interaction, nonverbal cues, anonymity, weak ties, information dissemination, social ties, technology and social life
- MeSH terms
- Social Interaction, Communication, Humans, Social Behavior, Social Media
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