Cited by 601Psychological Testing and AssessmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Research Topics

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Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability.

Dohrenwend, Bruce P.·2006·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477

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Abstract

An explosion of research on life events has occurred since the publication of the Holmes and Rahe checklist in 1967. Despite criticism, especially of their use in research on psychopathology, such economical inventories have remained dominant. Most of the problems of reliability and validity with traditional inventories can be traced to the intracategory variability of actual events reported in their broad checklist categories. The purposes of this review are, first, to examine how this problem has been addressed within the tradition of economical checklist approaches; second, to determine how it has been dealt with by far less widely used and far less economical labor-intensive interview and narrative-rating approaches; and, third, to assess the prospects for relatively economical, as well as reliable and valid, solutions.

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Life events and treatment prognosis for depression: A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis
Buckman, J. E. J., Saunders, R., Arundell, L.-L., Oshinowo, I. D., Cohen, Z. D., O’Driscoll, C., Barnett, P., Stott, J. C. H., Ambler, G., Gilbody, S. M., et al. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.030 · Cited by 23
“…error, for example those questions that qualify the degree of severity of the event such as “ serious arguments or disputes with a close friend/relative or neighbour ” give rise to ‘intracategory variation ’ , and are particularly prone to bias when respondents have depression (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
Socioeconomic-Status-Based Disrespect, Discrimination, Exclusion, and Shaming: A Potential Source of Health Inequalities?
Link, B. G., García, S. J., Firat, R. B., Scala, S. L., & Phelan, J. C. (2024) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465241232658 · Cited by 25
Positive life events and mood disorders: Longitudinal evidence for an erratic lifecourse hypothesis
Overbeek, G. J., Vermulst, A. A., de Graaf, R., ten Have, M., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Scholte, R. H. J. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.03.019 · Cited by 20
“This shows that data from the present large-scale, 2-wave longitudinal design need to be quali ﬁ ed in future studies that tackle this problem of ‘ intracategory variability ’ , by focusing on shorter time intervals (i.e., weeks or months) and by using a narrative approach that takes into account the speci ﬁ c context…”
Method
The reciprocal impacts of adversity and personality traits: A prospective longitudinal study of growth, change, and the power of personality
Rakhshani, A. C., & Furr, R. M. (2020) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12541 · Cited by 23
“Although not unique to our assessments, it introduces potential imprecision (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Combining checklist and interview approaches for assessing daily stressors: The Daily Inventory of Stressful Events.
Almeida, D. M., Stawski, R. S., & Cichy, K. E. (2011) · Cited by 20
Stress and Maternal Postpartum Depression: The Importance of Stress Type and Timing
Reid, K. M., & Taylor, M. G. (2015) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-015-9368-7 · Cited by 20
Do male and female gamblers have the same burden of adversity over their life course?
Andronicos, M., Beauchamp, G., DiMambro, M., Robert, M., Besson, J., & Séguin, M. (2015) · International Gambling Studies · doi:10.1080/14459795.2015.1024706 · Cited by 20
“Studies on recall factors have found that people tend to remember important or major events but not minor events, which contributes to an underestimation rather than an overestimation of their difficulties (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
Background
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone as a Biomarker for Stress After Thyroid Surgery: A Prospective Cohort Study
Hong, H., & Lee, J. (2022) · Medical Science Monitor · doi:10.12659/msm.937957 · Cited by 20
Life events and treatment outcomes among individuals with substance use disorders: A narrative review
Krenek, M., & Maisto, S. A. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.012 · Cited by 19
“This methodology in assessing LEs has been shown to improve reliability and validity (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
Method
Criminal Victimization, Depressive Symptoms, and Behavioral Avoidance Coping in Late Adulthood: The Conditioning Role of Strong Familial Ties
Reisig, M. D., Holtfreter, K., & Turanovic, J. J. (2017) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-017-9270-0 · Cited by 19
The synergetic effect of childhood trauma and recent stressful events in psychosis: associated neurocognitive dysfunction
Ayesa‐Arriola, R., Setién‐Suero, E., Marqués-Feixa, L., Neergaard, K. D., Butjosa, A., Vázquez-Bourgón, J., Fañanás, L., & Crespo‐Facorro, B. (2019) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13114 · Cited by 21
“While evidence has been accumulated for the association between CT and psychosis, the role of recent stressful events (RSE), defined as occurrences that were likely to bring about readjustmentrequiring changes in people’s usual activities (5), remains inconclusive (6).”
Background
Negative Life Events as Predictors of Anxiety Outcomes: An Examination of Event Type
Casline, E. P., Ginsburg, G. S., Piacentini, J. C., Compton, S. N., & Kendall, P. C. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00711-x · Cited by 22
“Consistent with previous studies, life events were scored as negative if rated by the participant as either “extremely bad”, “very bad”, “somewhat bad” or “slightly bad” (Broeren et al., 2014; Dohrenwend, 2006; Espejo, Hammen, & Brennan, 2012; Platt, Williams, & Ginsburg, 2016; Tiet et al., 2001).”
MethodResult
Lifelines: A Review of Content and Context
de Vries, B. (2013) · The International Journal of Reminiscence and Life Review · Cited by 19
Why Does Frustration Predict Psychopathology? Multiple Prospective Pathways over Adolescence: A Trails Study
Jeronimus, B. F., Riese, H., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Ormel, J. (2016) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2086 · Cited by 24
“Interviewer-based contextual ratings are essential to prevent intra-category variability and to disentangle objective event characteristics from the emotions and behaviours evoked by the event (Dohrenwend, 2006; Monroe, 2008).”
BackgroundMethod
Interview Methods (Structured, Semistructured, Unstructured)
Wethington, E., & McDarby, M. (2015) · The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging · doi:10.1002/9781118521373.wbeaa318 · Cited by 19
Development and validation of the Questionnaire of Stressful Life Events (QSLE)
Butjosa, A., Gómez-Benito, J., Myin-Germeys, I., Barajas, A., Baños, I., Usall, J., Grau, N., Granell, L., Sola, A., Carlson, J., et al. (2017) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.08.016 · Cited by 18
Exposure to family stressful life events in autistic children: Longitudinal associations with mental health and the moderating role of cognitive flexibility
Leno, V. C., Wright, N., Pickles, A. R., Bedford, R., Zaidman‐Zait, A., Kerns, C. M., Mirenda, P., Zwaigenbaum, L., Duku, E., Bennett, T. A., et al. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211061932 · Cited by 21
“Interview-based assessment of SLEs that allow more precise timestamping and probing as to the severity of events may overcome these issues (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
Method
Perceived stress trajectories from age 25 to 50 years
Johnson, M. D., Krahn, H. J., & Galambos, N. L. (2023) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254221150887 · Cited by 18
“Major life event stressors that require dramatic adjustment, but also tend to be relatively rare (e.g., job loss; Dohrenwend, 2006), have been distinguished from the persistent hassles of daily life that may exert a more subtle and constant influence (e.g., arguing with one’s spouse; Almeida, 2005).”
Background
The relationships between stressful life events during childhood and differentiation of self and intergenerational triangulation in adulthood
Peleg, O. (2014) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12054 · Cited by 18
Adversity in Early and Midadolescence Is Associated With Elevated Startle Responses to Safety Cues in Late Adolescence
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Vrshek‐Schallhorn, S., Waters, A. M., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Ornitz, E. M., Naliboff, B. D., & Craske, M. G. (2013) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702613495840 · Cited by 18
“, 2007), which has lower reliability than interview measures of childhood abuse (Dohrenwend, 2006; Monroe, 2008).”
Implicit Motives, Explicit Motives, and Motive-Related Life Events in Clinical Depression
Neumann, M.-L., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2014) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-014-9642-8 · Cited by 18
“Thus, their reduced sense of explicit power motivation paralleled their reduced n Power, although in a much less pronounced manner.”
BackgroundMethod
The Link Between Major Life Events and Quality of Life: The Role of Compassionate Abilities
Ferreira, C., Barreto, M., & Oliveira, S. (2020) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-020-00638-z · Cited by 21
“These life events, both those perceived as positive or negative, can be conceptualized as stressors since they may significantly interfere with ongoing life and can have a significant impact on the well-being and quality of life (Dohrenwend 2006; McKnight et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Childhood life events and psychological symptoms in adult survivors of the 2004 tsunami
Wahlström, L., Michélsen, H., Schulman, A., & Backheden, M. (2010) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/08039480903484092 · Cited by 18
Life Course Pathways of Adversities Linking Adolescent Socioeconomic Circumstances and Functional Somatic Symptoms in Mid-Adulthood: A Path Analysis Study
Jönsson, F., Sebastiån, M. S., Strömsten, L. M. J., Hammarström, A., & Gustafsson, P. E. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155963 · Cited by 18
Mental health service use, depression, panic disorder and life events among Swedish young adults in 2000 and 2010: a repeated cross-sectional population study in Stockholm County, Sweden
Lundin, A., Forsell, Y., & Dalman, C. (2017) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796017000099 · Cited by 18
“The life event checklist used is another possible source of bias, since several studies have shown that life checklists and more narrative events schedules have different merits (Duggal et al. 2000; Lewinsohn et al. 2003; Dohrenwend, 2006).”
Method
Personal life events—a promising dimension for psychiatry in electronic health records
Weissman, M. M., Pathak, J., & Talati, A. (2020) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3217 · Cited by 16
Пандемии и суицид: идеальный шторм и момент истины
Любов, Е. Б., Zotov, P. B., & Сергеевич, П. Б. (2020) · Суицидология · doi:10.32878/suiciderus.20-11-01(38)-3-38 · Cited by 18
Changes in Depressive Symptoms, Physical Symptoms, and Sleep-Wake Problems From Before to During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Emerging Adults: Inequalities by Gender, Socioeconomic Position, and Race
Fuller‐Rowell, T. E., Nichols, O. I., Doan, S. N., Adler‐Baeder, F. M., & El‐Sheikh, M. (2021) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968211042111 · Cited by 19
“Such marked changes occurring in unison over a relatively short period of time are likely to induce substantial psychological stress with mental and physical health consequences (Carney et al., 2006; Dohrenwend, 2006; Dohrenwend & Dohrenwend, 1984; Holmes & Rahe, 1967).”
Background
Temporal Relationships Between Inferential Style and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents
Calvete, E. (2011) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2011.4.4.438 · Cited by 17
“In this study, the number of reported events was the indicator of stressors in the cross-lagged analyses because the measures obtained by evaluating the degree of stress experienced can easily be contaminated by depressive symptoms and inferential style (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Moderate prenatal stress may buffer the impact of Superstorm Sandy on placental genes: Stress in Pregnancy (SIP) Study
Zhang, W., Ham, J., Li, Q., Deyssenroth, M. A., Lambertini, L., Huang, Y., Tsuchiya, K. J., Chen, J., & Nomura, Y. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226605 · Cited by 19
“The LES has been validated against narrative reports of life events [63].”
Method
Perceived major experiences of discrimination, ethnic group, and risk of psychosis in a six-country case−control study
Misra, S., Gelaye, B., Williams, D. R., Koenen, K. C., Borba, C. P. C., Quattrone, D., Forti, M. D., Tripoli, G., Cascia, C. L., Barbera, D. L., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721000453 · Cited by 18
“This could lead to an overestimation of the association, including for dose-response relationships (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
Background
Noncancer life stresses in newly diagnosed cancer
Lehto, U.-S., Ojanen, M. T., Väkevä, A., Aromaa, A. J., & Kellokumpu‐Lehtinen, P. (2008) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-008-0410-8 · Cited by 17
“Life event checklists [ 8 , 19, 34, 38, 39] are the most commonly used instruments.”
MethodResult
Gender differences, family size and fertility rate among patients with bipolar disorder: A study from India
Grover, S., Sahoo, S., Chaudhary, S., Chakrabarti, S., Nehra, R., & Avasthi, A. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.156 · Cited by 16
Differential effects of recent versus past traumas on mood, social support, binge drinking, emotional eating and BMI, and on neural responses to acute stress
Hermes, G., Fogelman, N., Seo, D., & Sinha, R. (2021) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2021.1877271 · Cited by 17
“Prior research supports the use of interviewers to efficiently improve reliability and validity of retrospective reports of traumatic and stressful life events (Dohrenwend, 2006; Hammen, 2005).”
Method
Association between stressful life events and resting heart rate
Lee, J., Kim, H. C., Kang, J. I., & Suh, I. (2014) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-014-0029-0 · Cited by 16
“Moreover, this independent association was observed in both the pooled and sex-specific analyses.”
Background
Prenatal and childhood adversity and inflammation in children: A population-based longitudinal study
Flouri, E., Francesconi, M., Midouhas, E., Papachristou, E., & Lewis, G. (2020) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.01.024 · Cited by 16
“In attempting to address our specific research question, we took into account recent developments in the conceptualisation and measurement of stressors (Dohrenwend 2006, Park 2010) and investigated the role of stressful life events separately by number and perceived severity.”
Background
Web-Based Measure of Life Events Using Computerized Life Events and Assessment Record (CLEAR): Preliminary Cross-Sectional Study of Reliability, Validity, and Association With Depression
Bifulco, A. T., Spence, R., Nunn, S., Kagan, L., Bailey‐Rodriguez, D., Hosang, G. M., Taylor, M. J., & Fisher, H. L. (2018) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/10675 · Cited by 18
“Checklist life events lack information on focus and fall prey to “intracategory unreliability,” having no definition or benchmark for guidance [8].”
Is psychological stress a predisposing factor for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)? An online international case-control study of premorbid life events, occupational stress, resilience and anxiety
Kullmann, J. A. P., Hayes, S. C., & Pamphlett, R. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204424 · Cited by 16
Stress: Psychological Perspectives
Monroe, S. M., & Cummins, L. F. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25038-1 · Cited by 16
Methodische Aspekte der Stressforschung
Kasten, N., & Fuchs, R. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-49322-9_7 · Cited by 15
“Die SRRS ist vor allem in methodischer Hinsicht kritisiert worden (Anderson et al. 2011; Dohrenwend 2006; Monroe 2008).”
Background
Private Life Events as Antecedents for Public Employees’ Engagement and Burnout
Weißmüller, K. S., Ritz, A., Steijn, B., & Alfes, K. (2023) · Public Personnel Management · doi:10.1177/00910260231187535 · Cited by 24
“…year was positive”; 1 = “the most important private life event of the prior year was negative”), because retrospective life event severity appraisals (e.g., measured on Likert-type or ranking scales) are associated with significant reliability and validity measurement issues (Dohrenwend, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Stressful life events and depressive symptoms during COVID‐19: A gender comparison
Qian, Y., & Fan, W. (2023) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1111/1468-4446.13067 · Cited by 15
Estresse e distresse: estudo com a escala de faces em Aracaju (SE)
Faro, A. (2015) · Temas em Psicologia · doi:10.9788/tp2015.2-08 · Cited by 15
Measuring Life Events and Their Association With Clinical Disorder: A Protocol for Development of an Online Approach
Spence, R., Bunn, A., Nunn, S., Hosang, G. M., Kagan, L., Fisher, H. L., Taylor, M. J., & Bifulco, A. T. (2015) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.4085 · Cited by 17
“The disadvantage comes from the time and labor involved [28] in analyzing the numerous constructs rated and the algorithms”
Background

Authors: Dohrenwend, B. P.
Affiliations: Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
Corresponding author: Dohrenwend, Bruce P.
ORCID: Dohrenwend, Bruce P.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2006
Volume: 132
Issue: 3
Pages: 477-495
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477
OpenAlex: W2043830713
Cited by: 601
References: 160
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 3.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH14663; MH26208; MH59627)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords: life events, psychopathology, reliability and validity, risk factors
MeSH terms: Mental Disorders, Conflict, Psychological, Humans, Life Change Events, Risk Factors, Narration

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Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability.

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