The DOI matches its Crossref record; 85 of the 87 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Abstract
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals ' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then exam-ine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understand-ing of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a re-search-based model that accounts for major patterns of behav-ior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for un-derstanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Finally, algorithmic management usually provides comparative feedback (comparing one’s results to other workers’) and is linked to incentive pay structures, both of which reduce self-determined motivation as they are experienced as more controlling26,192.”
From Understanding and shaping the future of work with self-determination theory (2022) · cites this paper as [192]
In the citing paper
“Dweck and Leggett (1988) observed that growth mindset is associated with mastery goals, while a fixed mindset is associated with performance goals”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett (1988)
In the citing paper
“This is reminiscent of goal orientation theories of motivation, where individuals may be either seeking ‘mastery’ of a topic for self-improvement, or demonstration of enhanced ‘performance’ of abilities relative to others [21,22].”
From Perceptions of scientific research literature and strategies for reading papers depend on academic career stage (2017) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“motivational factors and mindfulness promote self-regulation of learning [31, 52] and self-regulation of academic stress [24, 40, 53].”
In the citing paper
“Achievement motivation factors have been conceptualized as a trait-like individual difference variable that is relatively general and stable across achievement situations and have been hypothesized to influence affect, cognition, and behavior in various achievement situations [40, 41].”
In the citing paper
“Dweck’s theory hypothesizes that the incremental theory of intelligence predicts adaptive affect, cognition, and behavior, whereas the entity theory predicts maladaptive affect, cognition, and behavior.”
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, an emphasis on performance goals has been linked to vulnerability to a maladaptive helpless response to achievement setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988)”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In other words, they may orient toward learning goals, which have been associated with high achievement motivation (cf. Nicholls, 1984) as well as continued displays of persistence, enjoyment, and good performance in the face of setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In particular, Dweck and her associates have linked ability attributions for failure to helpless responding in the face of failure (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“whereas learning goals, effort attributions, and mastery responses have been linked to an incremental view of intelligence as subject to improvement (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Mueller & Dweck, 1997).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“The measure was designed to contain a choice of tasks that embodied different goals and has been used successfully in previous studies (see Dweck & Leggett, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Indeed, the pattern of performance goals, ability attributions, and helpless postfailure responses described above has been associated with an entity view of intelligence as a fixed trait”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Dominant motivational models such as achievement goal theory and self-efficacy theory have adopted a sociocognitive perspective that highlights the importance of cognitive and social factors, as well as their complex interplay in understanding motivated behaviours (e.g.Covington, 2000;Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Schunk, 1991).”
From Teachers’ perceptions of declining participation in school music (2011) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Research on responses to feedback suggests that additional internal factors might play a role, including self-efficacy, which refers to students' beliefs about their capabilities to achieve a specific goal or task (Bandura, 1986); goal orientation, which refers to students' purpose for engaging in a task or behavior (Dweck and Leggett, 1988;Elliot, 2005;Mega et al., 2014); mindset, which are one's”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In general, people who believe that (motor) abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability.”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Citations
Cites
Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Rotter, J. B. (1966) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0092976 · Cited by 21,937
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
Erikson, E. H. (1959) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,863
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835
Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing.
Bem, S. L. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.4.354 · Cited by 4,408
Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.328 · Cited by 4,161
Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
Markus, H. R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 · Cited by 3,911
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
JONES, E. E. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,760
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2458 · Cited by 3,746
Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement.
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.54.1.5 · Cited by 3,098
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 7,301–7,400 of 10,306
Oosterhof, A. (2008) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 2
Personal epistemological growth in a college chemistry laboratory environment
Keen-Rocha, L. (2008) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 2
Hongsa-ngiam, A. (2006) · Australasian Journal of Paramedicine · Cited by 2
Zielorientierungen und schulisches Lernen am Grundschulübergang
Paulick, I. (2011) · eDiss (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) · doi:10.53846/goediss-3093 · Cited by 2
Motivational dynamics in the learning context : Interaction of individual and situational factors
Tapola, A. (2013) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 2
Overcoming a Lack of Self-Assurance in an Achievement Domain
Harlow, R. E., & Cantor, N. E. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1280-0_9 · Cited by 2
Motivating and Counseling the Unemployed
Noordzij, G. (2008) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 2
Cunnyngham, H. F. (2001) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc2808 · Cited by 2
Chang, K. B. T. (2004) · The review of disability studies/Review of disability studies · Cited by 2
Wilson, A. R. (2009) · The Scholarship East Carolina University's Institutional Repository (East Carolina University) · Cited by 2
The Little Engine That Had an Incremental Theory ...
Lepper, M. R., & Corpus, J. H. (2000) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000022675 · Cited by 2
Leonadari, A. (1994) · International Journal of Early Childhood · doi:10.1007/bf03174276 · Cited by 2
Implicit Theories and Stigmatizing Labels
Lapadat, J. C. (1998) · Journal of College Reading and Learning · doi:10.1080/10790195.1998.10850071 · Cited by 2
Epistemological Beliefs of Community-College Students.
Comerford, S. S., Busk, P. L., & Roberts, W. L. (2000) · Cited by 2
Spelling Skills and Causal Attributions in Children
Dodds, J. (1994) · Educational Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1080/0266736940100207 · Cited by 2
ASSESSMENT OF HEARING-IMPAIRED ATHLETES' ANXIETY AND SELF-PERCEPTIONS
Eidson, T. A. (1997) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1997.85.2.491 · Cited by 2
An investigation of the mediators of talent development in golf
Stoszkowski, J. (2011) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham) · Cited by 2
Giftedness. Parents and schools should provide for gifted children.
Feldhusen, J. F. (1993) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.307.6912.1088 · Cited by 2
MOTIVATING FACTORS: IN-SCHOOL AND OUT-OF-SCHOOL LITERACY PRACTICES
Cohen, S. E. (2011) · KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas) · Cited by 2
King, L. G. (2009) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 2
Chow, B. (2011) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 2
Factors influencing persistence of aspiring chartered accountants : a fortigenic approach
Nel, P. (2007) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 2
A self-determination model of feedback-seeking behavior in organizationsPreprint
Stobbeleir, K. E. M. D., & Buyens, D. (2006) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 2
High school grading practices: Teacher leaders' reflections, insights, and recommendations
Webster, K. L. (2011) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 2
Raineri, G. (2010) · W. S. Hoole Special Collections Library Manuscript Collections · Cited by 2
Effects of Threats to Self-Esteem and Goal Orientation on Asking for Help
Chung, A. T. (2005) · UWSpace (University of Waterloo) · Cited by 2
Hammons, L. (2013) · OakTrust (Texas A&M University Libraries) · Cited by 2
Goodin, J. B. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2165574 · Cited by 2
Social Exclusion and Green Consumption
Naderi, I. (2013) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc500062 · Cited by 2
Achievement motivation and self-evaluative emotions in preschool children from low-income families.
Day, C. A. (2011) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/323 · Cited by 2
Technology students’ views of intelligence and the implications for classroom practice
Dow, W. (2003) · Loughborough University Institutional Repository (Loughborough University) · Cited by 2
Supporting working time interruption management through persuasive design
Liu, Y. (2015) · IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) · doi:10.7912/c2/950 · Cited by 2
Creating an entrepreneurial frame of mind.
Sinclair, R. L. (2012) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/1330 · Cited by 2
Sports and health : the influence of motivational orientation on body image and doping behaviors
Lugo, R. (2009) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 2
Engagement with learning: Adolescent perceptions of self and school
Ainley, M. (1994) · The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1017/s0816512200026936 · Cited by 2
The relationship of teacher optimism to attitudes and beliefs regarding classroom management
Yerkes, D. P. (1999) · The Mathematics Enthusiast · Cited by 2
Motivation, Cultural Values, Learning Processes, and Learning in Chinese Students
Ouyang, L., Hutchinson, N. L., Kirby, J. R., Cheng, L., & Bergin, D. A. (2009) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e628752009-001 · Cited by 2
Implicit Relationship Theories and Relational Communication
Reznik, R. M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic194 · Cited by 2
Ee, J. (1994) · NIE Digital Repository (National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University) · Cited by 2
Smith, R. C. (2011) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 2
Breland, B. T. (2001) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 2
Improving Chinese University Students' Speaking Performance in Mobile-Assisted English Learning
Liu, Y. (2016) · Figshare · Cited by 2
Classroom Practices and Perceptions of School Culture: An HLM Model.
Anderman, E. M. (1992) · Cited by 2
Self-Efficacy: Understanding African American Male Students Pathways To Confidence In Mathematics
Williams, L. A. (2017) · Human Biology · Cited by 2
Bateman, T. (2009) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 2
Depressive symptoms, anxiety, and perceived competence as predictors of goal orientation
Tupper, K. (2008) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria) · Cited by 2
Feedback in the context of high-stakes assessment
Harrison, P. G. (2017) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20170920ch · Cited by 2
Bonilla, L. (2017) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 2
Teacher stress and curriculum reform : an illustrative example with the “growth mindset” movement
Wright, C. F. (2017) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · doi:10.15781/t2j38m06f · Cited by 2
Crosson, L. S. (2010) · Cited by 2
Gilchrist, J. (2018) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 2
Burnout and engagement in music performance students
Zabuska, A. (2026) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) · doi:10.83056/mmu.32478993 · Cited by 2
What's the mindset? : an investigation of junior hockey players' attitudes toward sport psychology
Shaw, A. R. (2018) · Open ULeth Scholarship (OPUS) (University of Lethbridge) · Cited by 2
Interactive performance for musicians with a hearing impairment
Fulford, R. J. (2026) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) · doi:10.83056/mmu.32478306 · Cited by 2
Effects of Process Drama-Assisted Intervention on Oral Communication Strategies
Wu, H.-F. (2014) · Griffith Research Online · doi:10.25904/1912/584 · Cited by 2
An Investigation of the Pedagogic and Motivational Climate in UK Based Pilates Classes
Lee, H. R. (2018) · Research Repository (University of Gloucestershire) · Cited by 2
Implicit theories about willpower and their consequences for achievement, health, and well-being
Bernecker, K. (2016) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-123239 · Cited by 2
Business accelerators as learning environments: A mixed methods investigation
Harrison, G. (2019) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17142218.v1 · Cited by 2
Need for Cognition aus einer Anwendungs- und Grundlagenperspektive
Graß, J. (2018) · Qucosa (Saxon State and University Library Dresden) · Cited by 2
Attias, E. (2020) · Digital Repository Service (Northeastern University) · doi:10.17760/d20351643 · Cited by 2
Hurtado, I. L. (2020) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 2
Exploring Reading Motivation and Engagement in Discipline-specific Classes
Lee, Y. (2020) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 2
Méndez, D. A. T., Coca, M. M., & Acero, J. M. A. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202105.0120.v1 · Cited by 2
A comparative study between public and private school provision in the Sultanate of Oman
Al-Rahbi, F. H. S. (2020) · Cited by 2
Santos, R. F. (2021) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · Cited by 2
The intention and impact of visibly rewarding learners in two Gauteng high schools
Akabor, S. (2020) · Cited by 2
Chughtai, A. A. (2010) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) · Cited by 2
Achievement Goals and Current Events Knowledge.
Anderman, E. M., & Johnston, J. H. (1994) · Cited by 2
Learning Styles / Fixed vs. Growth Mindset
Hallahan, M. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119547181.ch355 · Cited by 2
Motivation, strategies and creativity
Moore, P. J. (2022) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2022.2042646 · Cited by 2
O’Brien, D. G., & Dillon, D. R. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.07121-9 · Cited by 2
Karwowski, M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-90913-0_58 · Cited by 2
Web-Based Courses In Higher Education: Creating Active Learning Environments
Eggers, M. (1999) · Digital Commons - Andrews University (Andrews University) · doi:10.32597/dissertations/347/ · Cited by 2
Job flourishing : Multilevel determinants and mechanisms
A’yuninnisa, R. N. (2023) · doi:10.3990/1.9789036558327 · Cited by 2
An implicit measure of growth mindset uniquely predicts post-failure learning behaviorPreprint
Sik, K., Cummins, J. D., & Job, V. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3407717/v1 · Cited by 2
Women entrepreneurs in a Botswana context: drivers for success
Khupe, D. B. (2022) · Sheffield Hallam University · doi:10.7190/shu-thesis-00549 · Cited by 2
Social Selves and Social Others in Adolescent Development
Walsh, R. J. (2023) · doi:10.5463/thesis.360 · Cited by 2
Ewart, C. K. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/pjhku · Cited by 2
How Frames Can Promote Agency: Response to Flusberg et al. (2024)
Walsh, J. (2024) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/15291006241296035 · Cited by 2
Paying Attention to Mindset Measures: A Necessary Step to Move Beyond Mindset ControversiesPreprint
Combette, L. T., & Kelemen, D. A. (2025) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/yr85t_v2 · Cited by 2
Growth MindsetPreprint
Grüning, D. J., & Rammstedt, B. (2025) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ar5gk_v1 · Cited by 2
Tyler, K. M., Haines, R. T., & Anderman, E. M. (2006) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-536-320251007 · Cited by 2
Da-Costa, L. E. K. (2015) · Durham e-Theses (Durham University) · Cited by 2
The situational adaptiveness of implicit theories of intelligence and achievement goal orientations
O’Keefe, P. A. (2009) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 2
Marangelli, C. A. (2002) · Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor) · Cited by 2
Xiang, P. (1996) · Louisiana State University · doi:10.31390/gradschool_disstheses.6292 · Cited by 2
Kinde, K. M. (2007) · SUNY Digital Repository Support (State University of New York System) · Cited by 2
Stadler, M. (2012) · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · doi:10.5283/epub.21389 · Cited by 2
The roots of physics students' motivations: Fear and IntegrityPreprint
Dusen, B. V. (2015) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1502.04256 · Cited by 2
La dynamique identitaire et capacitaire dans la construction du projet professionnel
Mary, G. (2012) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c5bf0db1zd7c6z4229za0bez52f0d4e9e5d7 · Cited by 2
Chédru, M. (2012) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/3576b2d0ze0e3z4606zbfe0z7f3860a7fcbd · Cited by 2
Indignation, defensive attribution, and implicit theories of moral character
Miller, C. H. (2000) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 2
Motivational issues in the study of Gemara among American high school senior boys
Ross, A. S. (2009) · Cited by 2
Success Factors among Early College Entrants
Hoggan, B. (2008) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc9091 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L.
- ORCID
- Dweck, Carol S.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1988-04
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 256-273
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2167884222
- Semantic Scholar
- bea6bdcd90212431bc464f638431b39ff6427855
- Cited by
- 9,745
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 382 · 2025: 462 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 421 · 2022: 477 · 2021: 472 · 2020: 566 · 2019: 435 · 2018: 386 · 2017: 407 · 2016: 417 · 2015: 392 · 2014: 403 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 385
- FWCI
- 55.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- mastery orientation, learned helplessness, mindset, motivation, personality, goal orientation, adaptive and maladaptive behavior, social cognitive model, cognitive processes, emotional processing, behavioral patterns
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
