Understanding and shaping the future of work with self-determination theory

Automation historically replaced routine, physically demanding, dangerous or repetitive manufacturing work, with little effect on professional and managerial occupations.

“Historically, automation has replaced more routine physically demanding, dangerous or repetitive work in industries such as manufacturing, with little impact on professional and managerial occupations1.”

• cites [1] Parker, S. K. & Grote, G. Automation, algorithms, and beyond: why work design matters more than ever in a digital world. Appl. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12241 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The sections on Job Demands and Skill Variety and Use say automation replaces heavy manual work and can take over “dull, dirty, and dangerous” tasks. The Moderators section says high-skilled and non-routine jobs fare better under technological change, but the paper does not establish that automation historically had little impact on professional and managerial occupations specifically. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Since the mid-2010s, automation has replaced many repetitive, error-prone administrative tasks such as processing legal documents, directing service queries and screening employees.

“However, since the mid-2010s, automation has replaced many repetitive error-prone administrative tasks such as processing legal documents, directing service queries and employee selection screening2,3.”

• cites [2] Jarrahi, M. H. et al. Algorithmic management in a work context. Big Data Soc. 8, https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211020332 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The ‘Algorithmic management as a sociotechnical concept’ section (p. 2) describes CV screening and algorithmic evaluations of interviews, supporting the employee-screening example. The copy does not substantiate the mid-2010s date or the examples of processing legal documents and directing service queries. It also describes organizational choices about whether processes are replaced or augmented, rather than saying automation has replaced all the tasks listed. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [3] Langer, M. & Landers, R. N. The future of artificial intelligence at work: a review on effects of decision automation and augmentation on workers targeted by algorithms and third-party observers. Comput. Hum. Behav. 123, 106878 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Technological developments, mostly online, have greatly increased the reach, scalability and variety of selection methods available to employers.

“Meanwhile, technological developments, largely delivered online, have radically increased the reach, scalability and variety of selection methods available to employers69.”

• cites [69] Woods, S. A., Ahmed, S., Nikolaou, I., Costa, A. C. & Anderson, N. R. Personnel selection in the digital age: a review of validity and applicant reactions, and future research challenges. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 29, 64–77 (2020). sourceSupported

Increased robotization increases the gender pay gap.

“Increased robotization increases the gender pay gap216”

• cites [216] Aksoy, C. G., Özcan, B. & Philipp, J. Robots and the gender pay gap in Europe. Eur. Econ. Rev. 134, 103693 (2021). sourceSupported

Adaptive and proactive performance can be promoted by satisfying the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness, and by self-determined motivation.

“Adaptive (coping with and responding to change) and proactive (initiating change) performance can be promoted by satisfying the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness, and self-determined motivation4,58.”

• cites [4] Gagné, M., Parker, S. K. & Griffin, M. A. in Research Agenda for Employee Engagement in a Changing World of Work (eds Meyer, J. P. & Schneider, B.) 137–153 (Edward Elgar, 2021).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [58] Gagné, M., Forest, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Crevier-Braud, L. & Broeck, A. The multidimensional work motivation scale: validation evidence in seven languages and nine countries. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 24, 178–196 (2015). sourcePartly supported

  The Work role performance section reports positive associations between autonomous motivation and adaptive and proactive performance, and between satisfaction of all three needs and autonomous motivation. The Discussion also describes a role for motivation in promoting performance. The paper does not establish that satisfying those needs promotes adaptive or proactive performance; the reported findings are correlations, not a tested intervention or causal pathway. (LLM, conf=0.83)

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The perceived job-relatedness of an assessment is associated with whether candidates view the assessment positively.

“For example, the perceived job-relatedness of an assessment is associated with whether or not candidates view the assessment positively69,80.”

• cites [69] Woods, S. A., Ahmed, S., Nikolaou, I., Costa, A. C. & Anderson, N. R. Personnel selection in the digital age: a review of validity and applicant reactions, and future research challenges. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 29, 64–77 (2020). sourceCould not verify

  The Online Applications section says applicants’ perceptions relate to system design, content, and usability, but it does not link perceived job-relatedness to positive views of an assessment. Searches for job-relatedness, job relevance, and face validity did not locate that link in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.70)

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• cites [80] Hausknecht, J. P., Day, D. V. & Thomas, S. C. Applicant reactions to selection procedures: an updated model and meta-analysis. Pers. Psychol. 57, 639–683 (2004). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The rapid growth of communication-technology networks has had both positive and negative effects on performance and well-being.

“The rapid growth of networks enabled by communication technologies (for example, Microsoft Teams, Slack and Webex) has produced positive and negative effects on performance and well-being.”

• cites [61] Hislop, D. et al. Variability in the use of mobile ICTs by homeworkers and its consequences for boundary management and social isolation. Inf. Organ. 25, 222–232 (2015). sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 describes both benefits and drawbacks of mobile ICTs for managing work–life boundaries, and section 5.1 reports flexibility alongside social isolation among homeworkers. The paper does not establish that rapid growth of communication-technology networks caused effects on performance and well-being generally, nor does it study the named platforms. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [62] Kellogg, K. C., Orlikowski, W. J. & Yates, J. Life in the trading zone: structuring coordination across boundaries in postbureaucratic organizations. Organ. Sci. 17, 22–44 (2006). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [63] Lisitsa, E. et al. Loneliness among young adults during covid-19 pandemic: the mediational roles of social media use and social support seeking. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 39, 708–726 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Technology-based assessments give candidates autonomy to interact with prospective employers at times and locations they choose.

“Technology-based assessments also afford candidates the autonomy to interact with prospective employers at times and locations of their choosing70,71.”

• cites [70] Lukacik, E.-R., Bourdage, J. S. & Roulin, N. Into the void: a conceptual model and research agenda for the design and use of asynchronous video interviews. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 32, 100789 (2020).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [71] Dunlop, P. D., Holtrop, D. & Wee, S. How asynchronous video interviews are used in practice: a study of an Australian-based AVI vendor. Int. J. Sel. Assess. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12372 (2022). sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (p. 3) says candidates can complete an asynchronous video interview at a time and place of their choosing. That supports the claim for AVIs, but the paper does not establish it for technology-based assessments generally. It also describes AVI responses as recorded for later evaluation, rather than direct interaction with an employer. (LLM, conf=0.84)

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Video-based, virtual, gamified and AI-based assessment technologies have improved the fidelity and immersion of selection.

“Furthermore, video-based, virtual, gamified and AI-based assessment technologies3,72–74 have improved the fidelity and immersion of the selection process.”

• cites [3] Langer, M. & Landers, R. N. The future of artificial intelligence at work: a review on effects of decision automation and augmentation on workers targeted by algorithms and third-party observers. Comput. Hum. Behav. 123, 106878 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [72] Armstrong, M. B., Ferrell, J. Z., Collmus, A. B. & Landers, R. N. Correcting misconceptions about gamification of assessment: more than SJTs and badges. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 9, 671–677 (2016). sourcePartly supported

  The passage labeled Abstract (page unavailable) says game elements were added to computer-based simulations to make assessment more immersive and engaging. It does not establish that these technologies improved selection fidelity, and it provides no comparable finding for AI-based or video-based assessment. The paper also says further research is needed to determine whether particular game elements improve outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [73] Armstrong, M. B. Landers, R. N. & Collmus, A. B. in Emerging Research and Trends in Gamification (eds Gangadharbatla, H. & Davis, D. Z.) 140–165 (IGI Global, 2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [74] Kotlyar, I. & Krasman, J. Virtual simulation: new method for assessing teamwork skills. Int. J. Sel. Assess. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12368 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Research on candidates' reactions to new selection methods has not kept pace with rapid technological change.

“Because technologies have changed rapidly, research on candidates’ reactions to these new selection methods has not kept up69.”

• cites [69] Woods, S. A., Ahmed, S., Nikolaou, I., Costa, A. C. & Anderson, N. R. Personnel selection in the digital age: a review of validity and applicant reactions, and future research challenges. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 29, 64–77 (2020). sourceSupported

Technology that creates poor work design will motivate job crafting and other proactive behaviours from workers seeking to better meet their psychological needs.

“Just as time pressure can stimulate proactivity104, we should expect that technology that creates poor work design will motivate job crafting and other proactive behaviours from workers seeking to meet their psychological needs better105.”

• cites [105] Wang, B., Liu, Y. & Parker, S. K. How does the use of information communication technology affect individuals? A work design perspective. Acad. Manag. Ann. 14, 695–725 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  In “An Integrative Model” (page unavailable), the paper says employees can cope with ICT-related stressors through job crafting and self-regulation. It does not say that technology-induced poor work design will motivate job crafting or other proactive behaviours, or that workers do so to meet psychological needs. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In aviation, manual flying skills can degrade from lack of practice when aircraft are highly automated, reducing pilots' opportunity to meet their competence need.

“For example, in the aviation industry, manual flying skills can become degraded due to a lack of opportunity to practice when aircraft are highly automated99, decreasing the opportunity for pilots to meet their need for competence.”

• cites [99] Haslbeck, A. & Hoermann, H.-J. Flying the needles: flight deck automation erodes fine-motor flying skills among airline pilots. Hum. Factors 58, 533–545 (2016). sourceSupported

Moderating factors include individual aspects such as a person's skill level or personality.

“These moderating factors include individual aspects, such as the level of skill an individual has or the individual’s personality.”

• cites [1] Parker, S. K. & Grote, G. Automation, algorithms, and beyond: why work design matters more than ever in a digital world. Appl. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12241 (2020). sourceSupported

Highly skilled individuals or those with proactive personalities may actively shape technology and/or craft their work design to better meet their needs and increase motivation.

“Highly skilled individuals or those with proactive personalities might actively shape the technology and/or craft their work design to better meet their needs and increase their motivation1.”

• cites [1] Parker, S. K. & Grote, G. Automation, algorithms, and beyond: why work design matters more than ever in a digital world. Appl. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12241 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  The Moderators section says highly skilled workers have greater bargaining power to demand better work designs, while the Conclusions and Intervention Strategies section describes job crafting as employees’ self-initiated efforts to change their jobs. The Introduction also advocates adapting technology and work design to human needs. These passages support the possibility of actively shaping work, but they do not specifically link proactive personalities to doing so or say that such individuals thereby increase their motivation. (LLM, conf=0.82)

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New technologies can also undermine the design of motivating work and thereby reduce workers' need satisfaction.

“However, new technologies can also undermine the design of motivating work, and thus reduce workers’ need satisfaction1.”

• cites [1] Parker, S. K. & Grote, G. Automation, algorithms, and beyond: why work design matters more than ever in a digital world. Appl. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12241 (2020). sourceSupported

Poor work design may negatively affect work motivation through poor need satisfaction, especially competence, because workers lack opportunities to maintain or gain skills.

“Thus, poor work design might negatively influence work motivation through poor need satisfaction, especially the need for competence, owing to the lack of opportunity to maintain one’s skills or gain new ones2.”

• cites [2] Jarrahi, M. H. et al. Algorithmic management in a work context. Big Data Soc. 8, https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211020332 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The Shifting roles section says algorithmic work design can deskill workers, leave some without training, and assign repetitive work that produces no new learning. The Algorithmic competencies section links lack of competency to reduced autonomy. Neither passage establishes the claimed pathway through competence-need satisfaction to lower work motivation. (LLM, conf=0.84)

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Screen interactions are more stressful and effortful than face-to-face interactions.

“Indeed, ‘screen’ interactions are more stressful and effortful than face-to-face interactions.”

• cites [109] Bailenson, J. N. Nonverbal overload: a theoretical argument for the causes of Zoom fatigue. Technol. Mind Behav. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000030 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The Cognitive Load section says that, compared with face-to-face interaction, Zoom users must work harder to send and receive nonverbal signals. The paper also describes potentially uncomfortable aspects of Zoom, but its Conclusion says these proposed psychological effects are largely hypothetical and have rarely been directly tested. The claim presents a broad comparison of all screen interactions as an established fact, which the paper does not support. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [110] Jun, H. & Bailenson, J. N. in International Handbook of Emotions and Media (eds Döveling, K. & Konijn, E. A.) 303–315 (Routledge, 2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [111] Ratan, R., Miller, D. B. & Bailenson, J. N. Facial appearance dissatisfaction explains differences in zoom fatigue. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 25, 124–129 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s introductory passage (page unavailable) describes videoconferencing fatigue, increased cognitive load, and psychologically taxing self-video. It does not establish that screen interactions generally are more stressful or effortful than face-to-face interactions; its reported camera-on comparison is with camera-off virtual meetings, not in-person meetings. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [112] Riedl, R. On the stress potential of videoconferencing: definition and root causes of Zoom fatigue. Electron. Mark. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-021-00501-3 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  In Discussion > Implications for practice (page unavailable), the paper says videoconferencing may require more cognitive effort than face-to-face interaction. Root causes of Zoom fatigue > Unnatural interaction with multiple faces (page unavailable) describes a possible source of stress. The claim broadens these qualified points about videoconferencing to all screen interactions and states them as an unqualified comparison. (LLM, conf=0.88)

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Technology can potentially influence work design and therefore employee motivation in positive ways.

“Technology can potentially influence work design and therefore employee motivation in positive ways1.”

• cites [1] Parker, S. K. & Grote, G. Automation, algorithms, and beyond: why work design matters more than ever in a digital world. Appl. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12241 (2020). sourceSupported

In manufacturing, complex production systems with cyber-machines connected in a factory-wide information network require strategic human decision-makers in complex, varied and high-autonomy jobs.

“For example, within manufacturing, complex production systems in which cyber-machines are connected in a factory-wide information network require strategic human decision-makers operating in complex, varied and high-level autonomy jobs98.”

• cites [98] Waschull, S., Bokhorst, J. A. C., Molleman, E. & Wortmann, J. C. Work design in future industrial production: transforming towards cyber-physical systems. Comput. Ind. Eng. 139, 105679 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.1.1 says factory-scale cyber-physical systems can shift human work toward more complex, broader-scope decisions, and the Discussion says humans remain important for supervision of complex automated processes. But the Abstract and sections 4.1.3 and 4.2 say job autonomy and the grouping of tasks depend on technical design and management choices; they do not say such systems necessarily require all human decision-makers to hold complex, varied, high-autonomy jobs. The paper assigns strategic decisions about automation and job design to management. (LLM, conf=0.87)

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Virtual work can challenge meeting workers' need for relatedness.

“Virtual work can also present challenges for meeting workers’ need for relatedness141.”

• cites [141] Charalampous, M., Grant, C. A., Tramontano, C. & Michailidis, E. Systematically reviewing remote e-workers’ well-being at work: a multidimensional approach. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 28, 51–73 (2019). sourceSupported
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Israeli employees with autism who had to work from home during COVID-19 experienced significantly lower competence and autonomy satisfaction than before the pandemic.

“For example, Israeli employees with autism who had to work from home during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced significantly lower competence and autonomy satisfaction than before the pandemic149.”

• cites [149] Goldfarb, Y., Gal, E. & Golan, O. Implications of employment changes caused by COVID-19 on mental health and work-related psychological need satisfaction of autistic employees: a mixed-methods longitudinal study. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52, 89–102 (2022). sourceSupported

Reduced mobility from staying in camera frame reduces individual performance relative to face-to-face meetings.

“Finally, reduced mobility from having to stay in the camera frame has been shown to reduce individual performance relative to face-to-face meetings109–112.”

• cites [109] Bailenson, J. N. Nonverbal overload: a theoretical argument for the causes of Zoom fatigue. Technol. Mind Behav. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000030 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The Reduced Mobility section says staying in camera view limits movement and cites studies linking movement to better performance. It does not report a study showing that this camera-related restriction reduces individual performance compared with face-to-face meetings; that is an inference from the evidence it discusses. The supplied passages do not give page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [110] Jun, H. & Bailenson, J. N. in International Handbook of Emotions and Media (eds Döveling, K. & Konijn, E. A.) 303–315 (Routledge, 2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [111] Ratan, R., Miller, D. B. & Bailenson, J. N. Facial appearance dissatisfaction explains differences in zoom fatigue. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 25, 124–129 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The introductory passage labeled Abstract (page unavailable) identifies reduced mobility as a theorized contributor to virtual-meeting fatigue and says that fatigue can harm productivity. It does not show that staying in camera frame reduces individual performance, or compare performance with face-to-face meetings. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [112] Riedl, R. On the stress potential of videoconferencing: definition and root causes of Zoom fatigue. Electron. Mark. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-021-00501-3 (2021). sourceCould not verify

  The Study context section says participants are typically visible only from the face or torso, and Implications for practice raises changes in body position as a question about stress. Neither passage says that staying in the camera frame restricts mobility or that such restriction reduces individual performance relative to face-to-face meetings. Searches for mobility, camera-frame restrictions, and individual performance found no passage addressing that link. (LLM, conf=0.74)

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Managers and organizations might reduce workers' autonomy by closely monitoring them, such as checking computer or phone usage.

“However, managers and organizations might rob workers of this autonomy by closely monitoring them, for example by checking their computer or phone usage123.”

• cites [123] Parent-Rocheleau, X. & Parker, S. K. Algorithms as work designers: how algorithmic management influences the design of jobs. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100838 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The 'Algorithmic monitoring' section says monitoring can reduce workers' autonomy in choosing their work methods and lists internet browser history among the information systems can collect. This supports the general claim and a computer-use example, but the passages do not identify checking phone usage as an example. (LLM, conf=0.82)

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Virtual work can make it harder for employees to acquire and share information.

“This can make it harder for employees to acquire and share information53.”

• cites [53] Yang, L. et al. The effects of remote work on collaboration among information workers. Nat. Hum. Behav. 6, 43–54 (2022). sourceSupported

The transition to working from home made employees question how and why they work.

“For example, the transition to working from home made employees question how and why they work234.”

• cites [234] Hopkins, J. C. & Figaro, K. A. The great resignation: an argument for hybrid leadership. Int. J. Bus. Manag. Res. 9, 393–400 (2021). sourceSupported

The technical complexity and opacity of algorithmic systems deprives workers of ability to understand and master the system that governs their work, limiting their voice and empowerment.

“Moreover, the technical complexity and opacity of algorithmic systems187–189 deprives workers of the ability to understand and master the system that governs their work, which limits their voice and enpowerment172,185,190.”

• cites [187] Anthony, C. When knowledge work and analytical technologies collide: the practices and consequences of black boxing algorithmic technologies. Adm. Sci. Q. 66, 1173–1212 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [188] Zednik, C. Solving the black box problem: a normative framework for explainable artificial intelligence. Phil. Technol. 34, 265–288 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.1 identifies bank employees as operators and decision-makers, and §3.2 says a lack of relevant knowledge can prevent them from performing those roles. The paper does not establish the broader claim that opaque systems governing workers’ work limit their voice or empowerment. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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• cites [189] Schlicker, N. et al. What to expect from opening up ‘black boxes’? Comparing perceptions of justice between human and automated agents. Comput. Hum. Behav. 122, 106837 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [172] Gal, U., Jensen, T. B. & Stein, M.-K. Breaking the vicious cycle of algorithmic management: a virtue ethics approach to people analytics. Inf. Organ. 30, 100301 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [185] Duggan, J., Sherman, U., Carbery, R. & McDonnell, A. Algorithmic management and app-work in the gig economy: a research agenda for employment relations and HRM. Hum. Resour. Manag. J. 30, 114–132 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.3 (Performance management; page unavailable) reports limited transparency about how work-assignment algorithms are changed. Section 4.1 (Employment relations; page unavailable) says workers in a power imbalance can struggle to have their voice heard, and section 4.2 describes constrained autonomy. The paper does not establish the claimed causal chain in which technical complexity prevents workers from understanding and mastering the system, thereby limiting their voice and empowerment. (LLM, conf=0.84)

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• cites [190] Terry, E., Marks, A., Dakessian, A. & Christopoulos, D. Emotional labour and the autonomy of dependent self-employed workers: the limitations of digital managerial control in the home credit sector. Work Employ. Soc. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017020979504 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  In “Digitalisation and algorithmic management in home credit” (pp. 9–10), the paper reports that algorithmic lending decisions reduced agents’ input and autonomy, although agents could sometimes request a review. It does not attribute that reduction to technical complexity or opacity, or say that workers cannot understand or master the system; nor does it establish a resulting loss of voice or empowerment. (LLM, conf=0.85)

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Whether algorithmic management systems consider human motivational factors influences whether workers are given enough autonomy, skills usage, task variety, social contact, role clarity, and manageable workload.

“Specifically, whether algorithmic management systems consider human motivational factors in their design influences whether workers are given enough autonomy, skills usage, task variety, social contact, role clarity (including knowing the impact of one’s work) and a manageable workload123.”

• cites [123] Parent-Rocheleau, X. & Parker, S. K. Algorithms as work designers: how algorithmic management influences the design of jobs. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100838 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The introduction and the section on job resources and demands describe how algorithmic-management design can shape autonomy, task variety, social support, role clarity and workload. The paper discusses job complexity and problem-solving opportunities, but does not specifically establish skills usage as an outcome. It also treats knowing the impact of one’s work as task significance, not as part of role clarity. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

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Need-satisfying leadership, such as transformational leadership, can encourage job crafting and other proactive work behaviours.

“Need-satisfying leadership, such as transformational leadership (charismatic or inspirational)15, can encourage job crafting and other proactive work behaviours198,199.”

• cites [15] Hetland, H., Hetland, J., Andreassen, C. S., Pallessen, S. & Notelaers, G. Leadership and fulfillment of the three basic psychological needs at work. Career Dev. Int. 16, 507–523 (2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [198] Hetland, J., Hetland, H., Bakker, A. B. & Demerouti, E. Daily transformational leadership and employee job crafting: the role of promotion focus. Eur. Manag. J. 36, 746–756 (2018). sourceSupported
• cites [199] Schmitt, A., Den Hartog, D. N. & Belschak, F. D. Transformational leadership and proactive work behaviour: a moderated mediation model including work engagement and job strain. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 89, 588–610 (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Workers' typical response to lack of transparency is to organize themselves on social media to share insights on what the algorithm 'wants' to gain back some control.

“Workers’ typical response to the lack of transparency is to organize themselves on social media to share any insights they have on what the algorithm ‘wants’ as a way to gain back some control over their work183,191.”

• cites [183] Goods, C., Veen, A. & Barratt, T. “Is your gig any good?” Analysing job quality in the Australian platform-based food-delivery sector. J. Ind. Relat. 61, 502–527 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [191] Gregory, K. ‘My life is more valuable than this’: understanding risk among on-demand food couriers in Edinburgh. Work Employ. Soc. 35, 316–331 (2021). sourceSupported

The evidence so far suggests that mostly comparative feedback provided by algorithmic management is insufficiently informative because the value of feedback is short-lived as continuously updating algorithms change what is required to perform well.

“The evidence so far suggests that the mostly comparative feedback provided by algorithmic management is insufficiently informative because the value of the feedback is short-lived — continuously updating algorithms change what is required to perform well177,183,185.”

• cites [177] Stark, D. & Pais, I. Algorithmic management in the platform economy. Sociologica 14, 47–72 (2020).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [183] Goods, C., Veen, A. & Barratt, T. “Is your gig any good?” Analysing job quality in the Australian platform-based food-delivery sector. J. Ind. Relat. 61, 502–527 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [185] Duggan, J., Sherman, U., Carbery, R. & McDonnell, A. Algorithmic management and app-work in the gig economy: a research agenda for employment relations and HRM. Hum. Resour. Manag. J. 30, 114–132 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Linking rewards to feedback could decrease intrinsic motivation because contingency between work behaviour and pay limits worker discretion and reduces autonomy.

“At the same time, linking rewards to this feedback could decrease intrinsic motivation, because the contingency between work behaviour and pay limits worker discretion and therefore reduces their autonomy26.”

• cites [26] Deci, E. L., Koestner, R. & Ryan, R. M. A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychol. Bull. 125, 627–668 (1999). sourcePartly supported

  The discussion on pp. 628–629 says performance-contingent rewards can feel controlling and tend to undermine intrinsic motivation; the conclusion on pp. 658–659 says reward contingencies can forestall self-regulation. These passages support the proposed mechanism, but the paper does not establish that linking workers’ pay to feedback specifically limits their discretion or reduces their autonomy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Sociotechnical aspects of algorithmic management systems and organizational policies surrounding their use could mitigate motivational effects.

“Sociotechnical aspects of the system2,209 (such as transparency, privacy, accuracy, invasiveness and human control) and organizational policies surrounding their use could mitigate the motivational effects of algorithmic management.”

• cites [2] Jarrahi, M. H. et al. Algorithmic management in a work context. Big Data Soc. 8, https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211020332 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The sections “Algorithmic management as a sociotechnical concept” and “Overcoming opacity” describe how organizational choices shape these systems and how policies and stakeholder participation can address opacity. The paper also reports that retaining control can reduce algorithm aversion. These passages support the relevance of system design and organizational policy, but they do not establish that those factors mitigate motivational effects specifically. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [209] Makarius, E. E., Mukherjee, D., Fox, J. D. & Fox, A. K. Rising with the machines: a sociotechnical framework for bringing artificial intelligence into the organization. J. Bus. Res. 120, 262–273 (2020). sourcePartly supported

  Sections 4.1 and 4.4 say that informing employees and using a structured approach to AI integration may alleviate negative expectations and improve psychological outcomes. Section 2.3 also links acceptance of AI to system design and the implementing institution. The paper does not specifically say that transparency, privacy, accuracy, invasiveness, human control, or organizational policies mitigate the motivational effects of algorithmic management; pages are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Giving autonomy and empowering virtual teams is crucial for good team performance.

“For example, giving autonomy and empowering virtual teams is crucial for good team performance206.”

• cites [206] Kirkman, B. L., Rosen, B., Tesluk, P. E. & Gibson, C. B. The impact of team empowerment on virtual team performance: the moderating role of face-to-face interaction. Acad. Manage. J. 47, 175–192 (2004). sourceSupported

Employee work requirements increasingly include tasks that cannot be easily automated, such as interpersonal negotiations and service innovations.

“Thus, work requirements for employees are increasingly encompassing tasks that cannot be readily automated, such as interpersonal negotiations and service innovations4: in other words, work that cannot be easily achieved through algorithms.”

• cites [4] Gagné, M., Parker, S. K. & Griffin, M. A. in Research Agenda for Employee Engagement in a Changing World of Work (eds Meyer, J. P. & Schneider, B.) 137–153 (Edward Elgar, 2021).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Satisfaction of the three psychological needs is significantly related to more self-determined motivation.

“Satisfaction of the three psychological needs described above is significantly related to more self-determined motivation8.”

• cites [8] Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C.-H. & Rosen, C. C. A review of self-determination theory’s basic psychological needs at work. J. Manag. 42, 1195–1229 (2016).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Self-determination theory holds that three psychological needs must be fulfilled for workers to be adequately motivated, perform optimally and experience well-being.

“According to self-determination theory5,6, three psychological needs must be fulfilled to adequately motivate workers and ensure that they perform optimally and experience well-being.”

• cites [5] Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. Intrinsic motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (Plenum, 1985). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [6] Gagné, M. & Deci, E. L. Self-determination theory and work motivation. J. Organ. Behav. 26, 331–362 (2005). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Meta-analytic evidence indicates that more self-determined motivation is more positively associated with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance and proactivity than more controlled motivation.

“According to meta-analytic evidence, more self-determined (that is, intrinsic or more internalized) motivation is more positively associated with key attitudinal and performance outcomes, such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance and proactivity than more controlled motivation (that is, extrinsic or less internalized)10.”

• cites [10] Van den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H. & Gagné, M. Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: a meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. Organ. Psychol. Rev. 11, 240–273 (2021).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Initial research shows that people perceive fewer opportunities to demonstrate their strengths and capabilities in interviews they know will be evaluated by AI than in interviews evaluated by humans.

“For example, initial research shows that people perceive fewer opportunities to demonstrate their strengths and capabilities in interviews they know will be evaluated by AI, compared to those evaluated by humans83.”

• cites [83] Langer, M., König, C. J. & Hemsing, V. Is anybody listening? The impact of automatically evaluated job interviews on impression management and applicant reactions. J. Manag. Psychol. 35, 271–284 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Technologies and automation can cause people to lose human competencies as they stop using those skills.

“Moreover, technologies and automation can lead to the loss of human competencies as people stop using these skills64–67.”

• cites [64] Bhardwaj, S., Bhattacharya, S., Tang, L. & Howell, K. E. Technology introduction on ships: the tension between safety and economic rationality. Saf. Sci. 115, 329–338 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [65] Rani, U. & Furrer, M. Digital labour platforms and new forms of flexible work in developing countries: algorithmic management of work and workers. Compet. Change 25, 212–236 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The digital divide is likely to be worsened by technological advances that may become more costly and require more specialized skills.

“First, the digital divide (unequal access to, and ability to use, information communication technologies)51 is likely to be exacerbated by technological advances that might become more costly and require more specialized skills.”

• cites [51] Van Dijk, J. The Digital Divide (Wiley, 2020).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Networking platforms lead some individuals to feel more isolated rather than more connected.

“However, networking platforms lead some individuals to experience more isolation rather than more connectedness63.”

• cites [63] Lisitsa, E. et al. Loneliness among young adults during covid-19 pandemic: the mediational roles of social media use and social support seeking. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 39, 708–726 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It would be difficult for candidates to judge the job-relatedness of this information unless they are given a rationale.

“We expect that it would be difficult for candidates to evaluate the job-relatedness of this information, unless provided with a rationale.”

Immersion is increased by richer media and gamified assessment elements.

“Immersion is enhanced by richer media and gamified assessment elements75,76.”

• cites [75] Alexander, A. L., Brunyé, T. T., Sidman, J. & Weil, S. A. From Gaming to Training: A Review of Studies on Fidelity, Immersion, Presence, and Buy-in and Their Effects on Transfer in PC-Based Simulations and Games (DARWARS Training Impact Group, 2005).Not matched

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Uncertainty and interdependence will challenge people's feelings of competence.

“Both uncertainty and interdependence will challenge people’s feelings of competence.”

The COVID-19 pandemic worsened work inequalities by giving better opportunities to those with digital access and skills.

“Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated work inequalities by providing better opportunities to those with digital access and skills210,211.”

• cites [210] Lythreatis, S., Singh, S. K. & El-Kassar, A.-N. The digital divide: a review and future research agenda. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 175, 121359 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [211] Lai, J. & Widmar, N. O. Revisiting the digital divide in the COVID-19 era. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy 43, 458–464 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Candidates who poorly understand what data are collected and how they are used may experience technology-based selection as autonomy-thwarting.

“Candidates with a poor understanding of what data are being collected and how they are being used might experience a technology-based selection process as autonomy-thwarting.”

Both adaptivity and proactivity require individuals to have enough autonomy to work differently, try new ideas and negotiate multiple pathways to success.

“Both adaptivity and proactivity depend on individuals having sufficient autonomy to work differently, try new ideas and negotiate multiple pathways to success.”

With current technology, assessments that appear typical or basic may also collect additional trace data such as mouse movements and clicks, or ancillary information such as micro-expressions or video backdrops.

“However, with today’s technology, assessments that appear typical or basic (such as a test or short recorded interview response) might also involve the collection of additional ‘trace’ data such as mouse movements and clicks (in the case of tests), or ancillary information such as ‘micro-expressions’ or candidates’ video backdrops81.”

• cites [81] Auer, E. M., Mersy, G., Marin, S., Blaik, J. & Landers, R. N. Using machine learning to model trace behavioral data from a game-based assessment. Int. J. Sel. Assess. 30, 82–102 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Future work is likely to worsen inequalities.

“Future work is likely to exacerbate inequalities.”

If candidates do not understand how technology-driven assessments work and cannot receive feedback from them, their need for competence may be thwarted.

“Furthermore, if candidates do not understand how technology-driven assessments work and are not able to receive feedback from assessment systems, their need for competence may be thwarted83.”

• cites [83] Langer, M., König, C. J. & Hemsing, V. Is anybody listening? The impact of automatically evaluated job interviews on impression management and applicant reactions. J. Manag. Psychol. 35, 271–284 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

To the extent that test-related and technology-related anxiety influences motivation and performance in online assessments or video interviews, applicant performance may be adversely affected.

“Nonetheless, to the extent that test-related and technology-related anxiety influences motivation and performance when completing an online assessment or a video interview, the performance of applicants might be adversely affected85.”

• cites [85] Vansteenkiste, M. et al. Autonomous and controlled regulation of performance-approach goals: their relations to perfectionism and educational outcomes. Motiv. Emot. 34, 333–353 (2010). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Because candidates increasingly interact with systems rather than people, their opportunities to build relatedness with employers may be stifled.

“Finally, because candidates are increasingly interacting with systems, rather than people, their opportunities to build relatedness with employers might be stifled.”

The gender pay gap is likely to be worsened as remote working becomes more common.

“and this gap is likely to be exacerbated as remote working becomes more common (as was shown during the pandemic)217.”

• cites [217] Madgavkar, A., White, O., Krishnan, M., Mahajan, D. & Azcue, X. COVID-19 and gender equality: countering the regressive effects. McKinseyhttps://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/future-of-work/covid-19-and-gender-equality-countering-the-regressive-effects (2020).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Communication technologies can both increase and decrease feelings of relatedness depending on how far they promote meaningful interactions.

“The nature of different communication technologies can both increase and decrease feelings of relatedness depending on the extent to which they promote meaningful interactions.”

Successful organizational functioning depends on people who can act autonomously to regulate their behaviour in a more unpredictable and changing environment.

“Hence, successful organizational functioning depends on people who can act autonomously to regulate their behaviour in response to a more unpredictable and changing environment31,54,59.”

• cites [31] Parker, S. K., Wall, T. D. & Jackson, P. R. ‘That’s not my job’: developing flexible employee work orientations. Acad. Manage. J. 40, 899–929 (1997). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [54] Griffin, M. A., Neal, A. & Parker, S. K. A new model of work role performance: positive behavior in uncertain and interdependent contexts. Acad. Manage. J. 50, 327–347 (2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

One study found that salaries increased less for women working flexibly than for men.

“For example, one study found that salaries did not increase as much for women working flexibly compared to men218;”

• cites [218] Glass, J. Blessing or curse? Work–family policies and mother’s wage growth over time. Work Occup. 31, 367–394 (2004). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Technology has enabled microwork, in which jobs are broken into small tasks carried out through information communication technologies.

“As another example, technology has enabled the introduction of ‘microwork’ in which jobs are broken down into small tasks that are then carried out via information communication technologies100.”

• cites [100] Lehdonvirta, V. & Ernkvist, M. Knowledge Map of the Virtual Economy: Converting the Virtual Economy into Development Potential (World Bank, 2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Core work design aspects such as decision-making power, skill use, task variety, ability to see one's impact, performance feedback, social contact, time pressure, emotional demands and role conflict are important predictors of job satisfaction, job performance and work motivation.

“Core aspects of work design, including decision-making power, the opportunity to use skills and do a variety of tasks, the ability to ascertain the impact of one’s work, performance feedback90, social contact, time pressure, emotional demands and role conflict91 are important predictors of job satisfaction, job performance92 and work motivation93.”

• cites [90] Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G. R. Development of the job diagnostics survey. J. Appl. Psychol. 60, 159–170 (1975). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [91] Parker, S. K., Wall, T. D. & Cordery, J. L. Future work design research and practice: towards an elaborated model of work design. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 74, 413–440 (2001). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [92] Humphrey, S. E., Nahrgang, J. D. & Morgeson, F. P. Integrating motivational, social and contextual work design features: a meta-analytic summary and theoretical extension of the work design literature. J. Appl. Psychol. 92, 1332–1356 (2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A more human-centred approach could have prevented the considerable negative outcomes that followed, including friction, reduced morale, loss of motivation, errors and impaired performance.

“A more human-centred approach could have prevented the considerable negative outcomes that followed (including friction, reduced morale, loss of motivation, errors and impaired performance)107.”

• cites [107] Kadir, B. A. & Broberg, O. Human-centered design of work systems in the transition to industry 4.0. Appl. Ergon. 92, 103334 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Supporting psychological needs during training, development and career transitions is likely to help people craft successful careers.

“Thus, supporting psychological needs during training, development and career transitions is likely to assist people in crafting successful careers.”

People will need to interact with machines more and more as part of their jobs.

“The consequence of this observation is that people will need to increasingly interact with machines as part of their jobs.”

Some evidence suggests that motivating job characteristics are especially important for fostering motivation or reducing strain when job demands are high.

“Some evidence suggests that these motivating characteristics (considered ‘job resources’ according to the jobs demands–resources model)94 are especially important for fostering motivation or reducing strain when job demands (aspects of a job that require sustained physical, emotional or mental effort) are high93,95.”

• cites [93] Gagné, M. & Panaccio, A. in Oxford Handbook of Employee Engagement, Motivation, and Self-Determination Theory (ed. Gagné, M.) 165–180 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2014). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [95] Bakker, A. B. & Demerouti, E. Job demands–resources theory: taking stock and looking forward. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 22, 273–285 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Leaving less routine and more interesting tasks for people increases the opportunity for workers to fulfill their need for competence.

“Leaving the less routine and more interesting tasks for people to do97 increases the opportunity for workers to fulfill their need for competence.”

• cites [97] Walsh, S. M. & Strano, M. S. Robotic Systems and Autonomous Platforms (Woodhead, 2019).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Employment stability is expected to continue declining with the growth of gig work and continued technological developments.

“Employment stability is expected to continue to decline with the growth of gig work and continued technological developments219,220.”

• cites [219] Valletta, R. G. Declining job security. J. Labor. Econ. 17, S170–S197 (1999). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [220] Givord, P. & Maurin, E. Changes in job security and their causes: an empirical analysis for France, 1982–2002. Eur. Econ. Rev. 48, 595–615 (2004). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In one case study, several new digital technologies such as cobots and digital paper flow were implemented with a strong technocentric approach, little worker participation and limited attention to motivating work design.

“For example, in one case study107, several new digital technologies such as cobots and digital paper flow (systems that integrate and automate different organizational functions, such as sales and purchasing with accounting, inventory control and dispatch) were implemented following a strong technocentric approach (that is, highly focused on engineering solutions) with little worker participation,”

• cites [107] Kadir, B. A. & Broberg, O. Human-centered design of work systems in the transition to industry 4.0. Appl. Ergon. 92, 103334 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The concept of a protean career is likely to become increasingly important.

“For this reason, the concept of a protean career, whereby people have an adaptive and self-directed career, is likely to be increasingly important223.”

• cites [223] Gubler, M., Arnold, J. & Coombs, C. Reassessing the protean career concept: empirical findings, conceptual components, and measurement. J. Organ. Behav. 35, S23–S40 (2014). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

People have greater self-awareness when they feel autonomous.

“Moreover, people have greater self-awareness when they feel autonomous.”

Tech-savvy Uber drivers under algorithmic management sometimes resist or game the system, for example by cancelling rides to avoid negative passenger ratings.

“For example, tech-savvy Uber drivers subject to algorithmic management sometimes resist or game the system, such as by cancelling rides to avoid negative ratings from passengers103.”

• cites [103] Mohlmann, M. & Zalmanson, L. in Proc. Int. Conf. Inf. Syst. 1–17 (ICIS, 2017).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Career-related adaptive and proactive behaviours can be encouraged by satisfying psychological needs.

“Nonetheless, career-related adaptive and proactive behaviours can be encouraged by satisfying psychological needs.”

Individuals proactively seek a better fit with their job through behaviours such as idiosyncratic deals and job crafting.

“More generally, individuals proactively seek a better fit with their job through behaviours such as idiosyncratic deals (non-standard work arrangements negotiated between an employee and an employer) and job crafting (changing one’s work design to align one’s job with personal needs, goals and skills)39,40 (Box 2).”

• cites [39] Tims, M., Bakker, A. B. & Derks, D. Development and validation of the job crafting scale. J. Vocat. Behav. 80, 173–186 (2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Virtual work creates uncertainty because workplace and interpersonal cues are less available or reliable for role clarity and smooth interactions.

“Virtual work engenders uncertainty because workplace and interpersonal cues are less available or reliable in providing virtual employees with role clarity and ensuring smooth interactions.”

Autonomy and social support can reduce the effect of workload on negative outcomes such as exhaustion.

“For example, autonomy and social support can reduce the effect of workload on negative outcomes such as exhaustion96.”

• cites [96] Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E. & Euwema, M. C. Job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 10, 170–180 (2005). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There are risks that needs-thwarting technology, or technology implemented in a needs-thwarting way, will add to the uncertainty already inherent in competitive job applications.

“However, there are risks that technology that is needs-thwarting or is implemented in a needs-thwarting manner, will add to the uncertainty already inherent in competitive job applications.”

Digitalization is influencing tasks within jobs rather than replacing whole jobs.

“However, the reality is that tasks within jobs are being influenced by digitalization rather than whole jobs being replaced87.”

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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The rise of more precarious work and new employment relationships adds to these career challenges.

“The rise of more precarious work and new employment relationships (for example, in gig work) adds to these career challenges221.”

• cites [221] Baruch, Y. & Vardi, Y. A fresh look at the dark side of contemporary careers: toward a realistic discourse. Br. J. Manag. 27, 355–372 (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Protean careers tend to flourish in environments that provide autonomy and allow proactivity, with support for competence and learning.

“In fact, protean careers tend to flourish in environments that provide autonomy and allow for proactivity, with support for competence and learning223,226.”

• cites [223] Gubler, M., Arnold, J. & Coombs, C. Reassessing the protean career concept: empirical findings, conceptual components, and measurement. J. Organ. Behav. 35, S23–S40 (2014). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [226] Hall, D. T. & Mirvis, P. H. in The Career Is Dead — Long Live The Career: A Relational Approach To Careers (ed. Hall, D. T.) 15–45 (Jossey-Bass, 1996).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Technology such as social media can enhance social contact and support in some jobs and circumstances, increasing opportunities to meet relatedness needs.

“Technology (such as social media) can also enhance social contact and support in some jobs and under some circumstances86,87 (but see ref.63), increasing opportunities for meeting relatedness needs.”

• cites [86] McCarthy, J. M. et al. Applicant perspectives during selection: a review addressing “so what?,” “what’s new?,” and “where to next?” J. Manag. 43, 1693–1725 (2017).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [87] Jesuthasan, R. & Boudreau, J. W. Reinventing Jobs: A Four-Step Approach for Applying Automation to Work (Harvard Business, 2018).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

ICT might satisfy competence needs by increasing access to global information and communication and the ability to analyse data.

“Information communication technology might satisfy competence needs by increasing access to global information and communication and the ability to analyse data136.”

• cites [136] Day, A., Barber, L. K. & Tonet, J. in The Cambridge Handbook of Technology and Employee Behavior (ed. Landers, R. N.) 580–607 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The balance of hybrid work is likely affected by individual characteristics and desires, as well as differences in work roles and goals.

“However, it is likely that this balance will be affected by individual characteristics and desires, as well as by differences in work roles and goals.”

The effect of remote work on relatedness will probably be accentuated in the future if the current trend for working from home continues.

“This effect will probably be accentuated in the future: if the current trend for working from home continues, more people will be dissociated from office social environments more often and indefinitely.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The current trend for working from home will continue.

Virtual work requires more self-regulation because employees must structure daily work and remind themselves of priorities without physical presence of colleagues or managers.

“This calls for more self-regulation115 because employees must structure their daily work activities and remind themselves of their work priorities and goals, without relying on the physical presence of colleagues or managers.”

• cites [115] Raghuram, S., Wiesenfeld, B. & Garud, R. Technology enabled work: the role of self-efficacy in determining telecommuter adjustment and structuring behavior. J. Vocat. Behav. 63, 180–198 (2003). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Surveillance has been shown to decrease self-determined motivation.

“Surveillance has been shown to decrease self-determined motivation127.”

• cites [127] Enzle, M. E. & Anderson, S. C. Surveillant intentions and intrinsic motivation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 64, 257–266 (1993). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The internet allows rapid asynchronous connection with experts worldwide who may provide information to solve work problems local colleagues cannot.

“Furthermore, the internet allows people to connect rapidly and asynchronously with experts around the world, who may be able to provide information needed to solve a work problem that local colleagues cannot help with136.”

• cites [136] Day, A., Barber, L. K. & Tonet, J. in The Cambridge Handbook of Technology and Employee Behavior (ed. Landers, R. N.) 580–607 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Lower-quality virtual communication between managers and colleagues can leave individuals unclear about goals, priorities, and how to achieve them.

“Lower-quality virtual communication between managers and colleagues can leave individuals unclear about their goals and priorities, and how they should achieve them114.”

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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Frustration of competence can increase if individuals constantly switch tasks to deal with overwhelming correspondence and fail to finish tasks timely.

“The frustration of the need for competence can increase if individuals are constantly switching tasks to deal with overwhelming correspondence and failing to finish tasks in a timely manner.”

Close monitoring reflects a lack of manager trust in individuals' abilities or intentions to work effectively remotely.

“This type of close monitoring reflects a lack of manager trust in individuals’ abilities or intentions to work effectively remotely.”

Need satisfaction within virtual teams can influence collective-level team processes, such as coordination and trust, which ultimately affect team performance.

“In addition to affecting individual performance, need satisfaction within virtual teams can also influence collective-level team processes, such as coordination and trust, which ultimately affect team performance.”

The combination of telling workers what to do to reach performance targets and how to get it done significantly limits their autonomy to make decisions based on knowledge and skills.

“Thus, the combination of telling workers what to do to reach performance targets and how to get it done significantly limits their autonomy to make decisions based on their knowledge and skills.”

Lack of need satisfaction might lead people to take advantage of disruption to reorient life priorities and career goals, leading to resignation.

“This lack of need satisfaction might lead people to take advantage of the disruption to ‘cut their losses’ by reorienting their life priorities and career goals, leading to resignation from their current jobs237,238.”

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The dimensions of team virtuality are not completely independent because team members require technology to communicate and coordinate tasks when working in different locations.

“Notably, these dimensions are not completely independent because team members require technology to communicate and coordinate tasks when working in different locations156,157.”

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Career shocks can trigger a sensemaking process that can lead one to question how time is spent at work and benefits drawn from it.

“Career shocks can trigger a sensemaking process that can lead one to question how time is spent at work and the benefits one draws from it.”

Multi-level theory suggests team members collectively develop shared experiences called team emergent states.

“Although individual team members might react differently to working in a virtual team, multi-level theory suggests that team members collectively develop shared experiences, called team emergent states159,160.”

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The constant updating of algorithms and opacity makes algorithmic management unpredictable, producing more uncertainty for workers.

“The constant updating of the algorithms as more data is collected and the opacity of this process makes algorithmic management unpredictable, which produces more uncertainty for workers177.”

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  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Working in a virtual team might make it more difficult to feel meaningful connections because team members in different locations often have less contact than co-located team members.

“For example, working in a virtual team might make it more difficult to feel meaningful connections because team members in different locations often have less contact than co-located team members.”

Team emergent states, particularly team trust, are critical for virtual team effectiveness because reliance on technology often brings uncertainties and fewer opportunities for social control.

“Team emergent states, particularly team trust, are critical for virtual team effectiveness because reliance on technology often brings uncertainties and fewer opportunities for social control165.”

• cites [165] Breuer, C., Hüffmeier, J. & Hertel, G. Does trust matter more in virtual teams? A meta-analysis of trust and team effectiveness considering virtuality and documentation as moderators. J. Appl. Psychol. 101, 1151–1177 (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Being stretched to the limit might influence competence and relatedness when workers feel suboptimal ways to connect with colleagues and insufficient time to balance work with other life activities.

“Being stretched to the limit might influence the need for competence and relatedness when workers feel they have suboptimal ways to connect with colleagues and insufficient time to balance work with other life activities that connect them to family and friends128,236.”

• cites [128] Senécal, C., Vallerand, R. J. & Guay, F. Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: toward a motivational model. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27, 176–186 (2001). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [236] Warner, M. A. & Hausdorf, P. A. The positive interaction of work and family roles: using need theory to further understand the work–family interface. J. Manag. Psychol. 24, 372–385 (2009). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtual team members might experience lower relatedness and competence need satisfaction.

“In sum, virtual team members might experience lower relatedness and competence need satisfaction.”

Team virtuality is likely to affect team functioning via its impact on psychological need satisfaction, similar to remote work.

“Team virtuality is likely to affect team functioning via its impact on psychological need satisfaction, in a fashion similar to remote work.”

Frustrations with electronic communication might diminish competence need because team members might feel ineffective in mastering their environment.

“Frustrations with electronic communication might diminish the psychological need for competence because team members might feel ineffective in mastering their environment.”

Empirical evidence shows algorithmic management features predominantly reduce employees' basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness because of how they influence work design.

“So far, empirical evidence show that algorithmic management features predominantly reduce employees’ basic needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness because of how they influence work design (Fig. 4).”

Algorithmic management tends to foster the 'working-for-data' phenomenon, leading workers to focus efforts on monitored and quantified aspects at expense of other tasks.

“Algorithmic management tends to foster the ‘working-for-data’ phenomenon (or datafication of work)172,178,179, leading workers to focus their efforts on aspects of work that are being monitored and quantified at the expense of other tasks that might be more personally valued or meaningful.”

• cites [172] Gal, U., Jensen, T. B. & Stein, M.-K. Breaking the vicious cycle of algorithmic management: a virtue ethics approach to people analytics. Inf. Organ. 30, 100301 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [178] Schafheitle, S. et al. No stone left unturned? Toward a framework for the impact of datafication technologies on organizational control. Acad. Manag. Discov. 6, 455–487 (2020).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [179] Norlander, P., Jukic, N., Varma, A. & Nestorov, S. The effects of technological supervision on gig workers: organizational control and motivation of Uber, taxi, and limousine drivers. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 32, 4053–4077 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The tendency to focus on monitored aspects is reinforced by algorithms being updated with new data, increasing need for workers to pay attention to what pays off.

“This tendency is reinforced by the fact that algorithms are updated with new incoming data, increasing the need for workers to pay close attention to what ‘pays off’ at any given moment.”

Remote workers high in emotional stability and job autonomy reported higher autonomy and relatedness satisfaction compared to those with low emotional stability.

“Yet remote workers high in emotional stability and job autonomy reported higher autonomy and relatedness satisfaction compared to those with low emotional stability120.”

• cites [120] Perry, S. J., Rubino, C. & Hunter, E. M. Stress in remote work: two studies testing the demand-control-person model. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 27, 577–593 (2018). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Algorithmic management is rapidly spreading to traditional work settings.

“However, it is rapidly spreading to traditional work settings. Examples include monitoring the productivity, activity and emotions of remote workers174, the algorithmic determination of truck drivers’ routes and time targets175, and automated schedule creation in retail settings176.”

• cites [174] Charbonneau, É. & Doberstein, C. An empirical assessment of the intrusiveness and reasonableness of emerging work surveillance technologies in the public sector. Public Adm. Rev. 80, 780–791 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [175] Levy, K. E. C. The contexts of control: information, power, and truck-driving work. Inf. Soc. 31, 160–174 (2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [176] Vargas, T. L. Consumer redlining and the reproduction of inequality at dollar general. Qual. Sociol. 44, 205–229 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Increased competitive climates due to comparative feedback or displaying team members' individual rankings can hamper relatedness.

“Increased competitive climates due to comparative feedback or displaying team members’ individual rankings175,196 can also hamper relatedness.”

• cites [175] Levy, K. E. C. The contexts of control: information, power, and truck-driving work. Inf. Soc. 31, 160–174 (2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [196] Leclercq-Vandelannoitte, A. An ethical perspective on emerging forms of ubiquitous IT-based control. J. Bus. Ethics 142, 139–154 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Gamification features on some platforms might increase intrinsic motivation.

“However, gamification features on some platforms might increase intrinsic motivation179,183.”

• cites [179] Norlander, P., Jukic, N., Varma, A. & Nestorov, S. The effects of technological supervision on gig workers: organizational control and motivation of Uber, taxi, and limousine drivers. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 32, 4053–4077 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [183] Goods, C., Veen, A. & Barratt, T. “Is your gig any good?” Analysing job quality in the Australian platform-based food-delivery sector. J. Ind. Relat. 61, 502–527 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Within non-virtual teams, need satisfaction is influenced by extent team members exhibit need-supportive behaviours towards each other.

“Within non-virtual teams, need satisfaction is influenced by the extent to which team members exhibit need-supportive behaviours towards each other205.”

• cites [205] Jungert, T., Van den Broeck, A., Schreurs, B. & Osterman, U. How colleagues can support each other’s needs and motivation: an intervention on employee work motivation. Appl. Psychol. 67, 3–29 (2018). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When workers have to compete against each other to rank highly, they are less likely to develop trusting and supportive relationships.

“Indeed, when workers have to compete against each other to rank highly (which influences their chances of getting future work and the financial incentives they receive), they are less likely to develop trusting and supportive relationships.”

Short-lived feedback can undermine feelings of mastery or competence.

“This short-lived feedback can undermine feelings of mastery or competence.”

It is not algorithms that shape workers' motivation, but how organizations design and use them.

“In sum, it is not algorithms that shape workers’ motivation, but how organizations design and use them3.”

• cites [3] Langer, M. & Landers, R. N. The future of artificial intelligence at work: a review on effects of decision automation and augmentation on workers targeted by algorithms and third-party observers. Comput. Hum. Behav. 123, 106878 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source