The DOI matches its Crossref record; 85 of the 87 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Abstract
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals ' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then exam-ine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understand-ing of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a re-search-based model that accounts for major patterns of behav-ior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for un-derstanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Finally, algorithmic management usually provides comparative feedback (comparing one’s results to other workers’) and is linked to incentive pay structures, both of which reduce self-determined motivation as they are experienced as more controlling26,192.”
From Understanding and shaping the future of work with self-determination theory (2022) · cites this paper as [192]
In the citing paper
“Dweck and Leggett (1988) observed that growth mindset is associated with mastery goals, while a fixed mindset is associated with performance goals”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett (1988)
In the citing paper
“This is reminiscent of goal orientation theories of motivation, where individuals may be either seeking ‘mastery’ of a topic for self-improvement, or demonstration of enhanced ‘performance’ of abilities relative to others [21,22].”
From Perceptions of scientific research literature and strategies for reading papers depend on academic career stage (2017) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“motivational factors and mindfulness promote self-regulation of learning [31, 52] and self-regulation of academic stress [24, 40, 53].”
In the citing paper
“Achievement motivation factors have been conceptualized as a trait-like individual difference variable that is relatively general and stable across achievement situations and have been hypothesized to influence affect, cognition, and behavior in various achievement situations [40, 41].”
In the citing paper
“Dweck’s theory hypothesizes that the incremental theory of intelligence predicts adaptive affect, cognition, and behavior, whereas the entity theory predicts maladaptive affect, cognition, and behavior.”
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, an emphasis on performance goals has been linked to vulnerability to a maladaptive helpless response to achievement setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988)”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In other words, they may orient toward learning goals, which have been associated with high achievement motivation (cf. Nicholls, 1984) as well as continued displays of persistence, enjoyment, and good performance in the face of setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In particular, Dweck and her associates have linked ability attributions for failure to helpless responding in the face of failure (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“whereas learning goals, effort attributions, and mastery responses have been linked to an incremental view of intelligence as subject to improvement (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Mueller & Dweck, 1997).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“The measure was designed to contain a choice of tasks that embodied different goals and has been used successfully in previous studies (see Dweck & Leggett, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Indeed, the pattern of performance goals, ability attributions, and helpless postfailure responses described above has been associated with an entity view of intelligence as a fixed trait”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Dominant motivational models such as achievement goal theory and self-efficacy theory have adopted a sociocognitive perspective that highlights the importance of cognitive and social factors, as well as their complex interplay in understanding motivated behaviours (e.g.Covington, 2000;Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Schunk, 1991).”
From Teachers’ perceptions of declining participation in school music (2011) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Research on responses to feedback suggests that additional internal factors might play a role, including self-efficacy, which refers to students' beliefs about their capabilities to achieve a specific goal or task (Bandura, 1986); goal orientation, which refers to students' purpose for engaging in a task or behavior (Dweck and Leggett, 1988;Elliot, 2005;Mega et al., 2014); mindset, which are one's”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In general, people who believe that (motor) abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability.”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Citations
Cites
Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Rotter, J. B. (1966) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0092976 · Cited by 21,937
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
Erikson, E. H. (1959) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,863
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835
Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing.
Bem, S. L. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.4.354 · Cited by 4,408
Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.328 · Cited by 4,161
Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
Markus, H. R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 · Cited by 3,911
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
JONES, E. E. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,760
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2458 · Cited by 3,746
Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement.
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.54.1.5 · Cited by 3,098
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 8,001–8,100 of 10,306
Goodin, J. B. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2157668 · Cited by 1
Cardelús, E. (2015) · DiVA (Stockholm University) · Cited by 1
Understanding employees' professional development
van Rijn, M. B. (2014) · doi:10.3990/1.9789036537377 · Cited by 1
Right Motives: A Christian Perspective on Students' Academic Motivation
Dowson, M. N., & Harvey, P. (2003) · Journal of Christian Education · doi:10.1177/002196570304600105 · Cited by 1
Neves, S. P., & Faria, L. (2009) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · Cited by 1
Ratee Reactions: Negative Feedback as a Motivating Source
Kabins, A. H. (2012) · OakTrust (Texas A&M University Libraries) · Cited by 1
Beck, N. M. (2014) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc700098 · Cited by 1
Valdivieso-León, L. (2015) · UVaDOC UVaDOC University of Valladolid Documentary Repository (University of Valladolid) · doi:10.35376/10324/16188 · Cited by 1
The effects of transition intervention on students with mild disabilities.
Niemann, Y. (2007) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/1062 · Cited by 1
Logue, P. (2007) · ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) · Cited by 1
Krawiec, K. (2015) · Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor) · Cited by 1
The role of goals and goal orientation as predisposing factors for depression
Klossek, U. (2015) · Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) · Cited by 1
A Behavioral Agency Model of Managerial CreativtyPreprint
Belbaly, N., & Somsing, A. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2536298 · Cited by 1
Perfectionism and youth sport experiences: A social-cognitive perspective
Mallinson‐Howard, S. H. (2015) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 1
Easter, M. A. (2010) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri) · doi:10.32469/10355/10283 · Cited by 1
The influence of three fundamental factors on conspicuous consumption
Kim, S. (2015) · Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology) · Cited by 1
LOOKING GOOD AND DOING BETTER: RETHINKING MOTIVATIONS FOR ADOPTING INNOVATIONS.
Kennedy, M., & Fiss, P. C. (2006) · Academy of Management Proceedings · doi:10.5465/ambpp.2006.27175485 · Cited by 1
Kilduff, G. J. (2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
der Heijde, C. M. V. (2016) · doi:10.3990/1.9789036540513 · Cited by 1
MARGERUM, L. A. (2014) · Digital Commons - Andrews University (Andrews University) · doi:10.32597/dissertations/557/ · Cited by 1
Ethnic differences and domain specificity in young adolescents’ implicit beliefs about intelligence
Pacheva, D. J. (2009) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0099300 · Cited by 1
Factors of Resilience That Support University Art and Design Students.
Morgan, R. C. (2016) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 1
ESTRATEGIAS COGNITIVAS Y METAS ACADEMICAS: SUS EFECTOS EN EL RENDIMIENTO ACADEMICO
Peralbo, M., Lozano, A. B., Blanco, J. C. B., Fernández, M. G., & Fraga, H. M. (2009) · Cited by 1
What moves children to move? Pre-adolescent children’s motivation for physical education
Pannekoek, L. (2015) · eSpace (Curtin University) · Cited by 1
Ko, Y. C. (2007) · Journal of the Korean Chemical Society · doi:10.5012/jkcs.2007.51.5.459 · Cited by 1
Riggs, M. B. (1993) · The Mathematics Enthusiast · Cited by 1
International students in Norway : a study of migration motivation
Teshnar, T. (2009) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 1
An exploration of partners' perspectives on adversity and challenge
Bradding, A. (2015) · City Research Online (City University London) · Cited by 1
Women in stem: Identifying and lowering the barriers
Hart, C. R. (2016) · ThinkTech (Texas Tech University) · Cited by 1
Implicit theories go applied: Conception of ability at work
Thompson, C. N., & Miller, C. E. (2007) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e518532013-014 · Cited by 1
The role of attainability in upward social comparison
Braslow, M. D., Arkin, R. M., & Guerrettaz, J. (2013) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e642622013-073 · Cited by 1
Hope for success: Effects of an academic intervention for at-risk college students
Harris, C. M. (2015) · Cited by 1
DO NOT CITE WITHOUT AUTHORS` PERMISSION
Kim, S. H., & Lee, J. H. (2011) · 한국행정학회 학술대회 발표논문집 · Cited by 1
Allard, T. (2016) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0307466 · Cited by 1
Digital service problems: Prevention and user persistence in solving them
Nili, A. (2016) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.19288325 · Cited by 1
Gomez, C. J. (2016) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) · Cited by 1
Joe, K. C. (2016) · FIU - Digital Commons (Florida International University) · doi:10.25148/etd.fidc000714 · Cited by 1
THE PEER ASSESSMENT PROCESS: A CASE STUDY OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS RECEIVING PEER FEEDBACK
Katsoulas, E. (2013) · QSpace (Queen's University Library) · Cited by 1
Hafsteinsson, L. G. (2002) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 1
Manamela, M. J. (2016) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · Cited by 1
Janke, S. (2016) · MADOC (University of Mannheim) · Cited by 1
Dweck, C. S., & Master, A. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-3370-7.00044-4 · Cited by 1
Self-citationEvaluation of Students' Interest, Effort Beliefs, and Self-Efficacy in General Chemistry
Ferrell, B. (2016) · Scholarship & Creative Works - Digital UNC a service of University Libraries (University of Northern Colorado) · Cited by 1
Black, A. N. (2009) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 1
Szogeczki, L. (2017) · Liverpool John Moores University · doi:10.24377/ljmu.t.00005107 · Cited by 1
Self-efficacy state experiences in introductory physics: With implications for gender in physics
Nissen, J. (2016) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 1
The Role of Causal Attribution and Implicit Mindset in Development of Wisdom
Alhosseini, F. (2016) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 1
Personal Epistemology and its Influence on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
Clancy, D. (2013) · Bangor University Research Portal (Bangor University) · Cited by 1
Goal Interdependence and the Role of Team Goal System Awareness
Sackett, E. (2017) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 1
Shirey, K. L. (2017) · University Libraries (University of Maryland) · doi:10.13016/m2nw0h · Cited by 1
Munyao, M. M. (2016) · University of Nairobi Research Archive (University of Nairobi) · Cited by 1
Lardy, L. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/609e943cz58edz4dc4z90e2zb4605be41fe2 · Cited by 1
A critical examination into motivation and gender in youth physical fitness testing
Domangue, E. A. (2009) · Louisiana State University · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.2730 · Cited by 1
Sawyer, J. (2017) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 1
Learning From Critical Feedback: An Interdisciplinary Literature Review
Shukla, S. (2017) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) · Cited by 1
Do Self-Interested Learners Avoid Prosocial Learning?Preprint
Heslop, B., Stojanovski, E., Paul, J., & Bailey, K. A. (2018) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints201801.0050.v1 · Cited by 1
Dispositional influences on the intent to transfer learning: a test of a structural equation model
Yamkovenko, B. (2009) · Louisiana State University · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.159 · Cited by 1
A Study on Academic Motivation of University Students
Gonda, S. N. (2017) · Cited by 1
Murray, A.-M. (2013) · Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) · Cited by 1
Self-efficacy and allocation of effort during reading among older and younger adults
Gagne, D. D. (2004) · University of New Hampshire Scholars Repository (University of New Hampshire at Manchester) · Cited by 1
Wei, Y. (2012) · Mspace (University of Manitoba) · Cited by 1
Children's Beliefs about Intelligence
Bonne, L. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0094 · Cited by 1
Developmental Psychology (Social)
Rodkin, P. C., & Roisman, G. I. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0090 · Cited by 1
Langan, E. (2018) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University) · Cited by 1
Lou, M.-T. (2014) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3c824m8c · Cited by 1
Stäbler, F. (2018) · Universitätsbibliothek der FU Berlin Hochschulschriftenstelle u. Dokumentenserver · doi:10.17169/refubium-7413 · Cited by 1
Relativistic thinking and identity development in college students
Regeth, R. A. (1997) · University of New Hampshire Scholars Repository (University of New Hampshire at Manchester) · Cited by 1
Chao, M. M., Dehejia, R., Mukhopadhyay, A., & Visaria, S. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2607789 · Cited by 1
Building a Compendium of Teaching Strategy Resources that Foster Growth Mindset and Belonging
Beaubien, J. (2018) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Auerbach, A. (2018) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc1248529 · Cited by 1
Raphiphatthana, B. (2018) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.20388189 · Cited by 1
Teachers' Knowledge, Perceptions, and Practices About Mindset in the Northern Mariana Islands
Cruz, B. (2018) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 1
Motivational Aspects of Moral Decision Making
Doerflinger, J. T. (2019) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 1
Exploring the Neural Mechanisms of Physics Learning
Bartley, J. E. (2018) · FIU - Digital Commons (Florida International University) · doi:10.25148/etd.fidc007018 · Cited by 1
Languaging and learning compared across EFL course delivery modes
Sampson, A. E. (2019) · Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) · doi:10.17635/lancaster/thesis/536 · Cited by 1
Empowered Learning Systems in Student Successt
Laupheimer, C. (2019) · Dominican Scholar (Dominican University of California) · doi:10.33015/dominican.edu/2019.edu.13 · Cited by 1
Otieno, H. (2018) · Sheffield Hallam University · doi:10.7190/shu-thesis-00153 · Cited by 1
Sandu, M. (2019) · NORMA · Cited by 1
Development of a Growth Mindset Approach to Reading Instruction
Miller, R. A. (2019) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Laine, E. (2019) · UTUPub (University of Turku) · Cited by 1
Balancing exploration, exploitation, and efficiency : a framework of entrepreneurial learning.
Digan, S. P. (2019) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/3232 · Cited by 1
Duan, X. (2018) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 1
Essays on maternal employment and child health outcomes
Wasswa, G. (2019) · Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) · Cited by 1
Maxcy, P. (1991) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 1
The Effect of Consumers’ Self-Congruence with Brand Endorsers on Consumer Responses
Akbar, W. (2019) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University) · Cited by 1
Kuwashima, Y., Uehara, T., Kishi, K., Nishimura, T., Shiromizu, K., Matsuzawa, M., & Takayama, S. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 1
The Labyrinth of Autism: Heuristic Journeys of Fathers Who Have a Child on the Autism Spectrum
Boskovich, L. A. (2020) · Chapman University Digital Commons (Chapman University) · doi:10.36837/chapman.000186 · Cited by 1
Gierhart, A. R. (2020) · ISU Red - Research and eData (Illinois State University) · doi:10.30707/etd2020.gierhart.a · Cited by 1
Athletes' Perceptions of Pre-game Rituals in Open-skill Sports
Bonk, D. (2020) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 1
An Investigation to Continuum HypothesisPreprint
Lam, K. S. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3181915 · Cited by 1
Ford, B. Q. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Enabling 'growth mindsets' in engineering students
Campbell, A. (2020) · Open University of Cape Town (University of Cape Town) · Cited by 1
Developing the resilience scale for college students (RSCS)
Shannon, T. M. (2020) · Cited by 1
The Development of Cognitive Styles Among American and Chinese Children
Cheng, L. (2020) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) · Cited by 1
Wolf, T. (2021) · eDiss (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) · doi:10.53846/goediss-8472 · Cited by 1
Motivationsregulation im Studium: Entwicklung und Evaluation eines Trainingsprogramms
Eckerlein, N. (2021) · OPUS (Augsburg University) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.32927.89763 · Cited by 1
Replies to Commentators on The Skillfulness of Virtue
Stichter, M. (2021) · Ethical Theory and Moral Practice · doi:10.1007/s10677-021-10197-1 · Cited by 1
Pickard, J. (2003) · The Research Repository @ WVU (West Virginia University) · doi:10.33915/etd.1886 · Cited by 1
Educators' belief change in a situated learning environment
Deissler, C. H. (2007) · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L.
- ORCID
- Dweck, Carol S.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1988-04
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 256-273
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2167884222
- Semantic Scholar
- bea6bdcd90212431bc464f638431b39ff6427855
- Cited by
- 9,745
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 382 · 2025: 462 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 421 · 2022: 477 · 2021: 472 · 2020: 566 · 2019: 435 · 2018: 386 · 2017: 407 · 2016: 417 · 2015: 392 · 2014: 403 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 385
- FWCI
- 55.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- mastery orientation, learned helplessness, mindset, motivation, personality, goal orientation, adaptive and maladaptive behavior, social cognitive model, cognitive processes, emotional processing, behavioral patterns
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
