The DOI matches its Crossref record; 85 of the 87 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Abstract
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals ' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then exam-ine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understand-ing of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a re-search-based model that accounts for major patterns of behav-ior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for un-derstanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Finally, algorithmic management usually provides comparative feedback (comparing one’s results to other workers’) and is linked to incentive pay structures, both of which reduce self-determined motivation as they are experienced as more controlling26,192.”
From Understanding and shaping the future of work with self-determination theory (2022) · cites this paper as [192]
In the citing paper
“Dweck and Leggett (1988) observed that growth mindset is associated with mastery goals, while a fixed mindset is associated with performance goals”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett (1988)
In the citing paper
“This is reminiscent of goal orientation theories of motivation, where individuals may be either seeking ‘mastery’ of a topic for self-improvement, or demonstration of enhanced ‘performance’ of abilities relative to others [21,22].”
From Perceptions of scientific research literature and strategies for reading papers depend on academic career stage (2017) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“motivational factors and mindfulness promote self-regulation of learning [31, 52] and self-regulation of academic stress [24, 40, 53].”
In the citing paper
“Achievement motivation factors have been conceptualized as a trait-like individual difference variable that is relatively general and stable across achievement situations and have been hypothesized to influence affect, cognition, and behavior in various achievement situations [40, 41].”
In the citing paper
“Dweck’s theory hypothesizes that the incremental theory of intelligence predicts adaptive affect, cognition, and behavior, whereas the entity theory predicts maladaptive affect, cognition, and behavior.”
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, an emphasis on performance goals has been linked to vulnerability to a maladaptive helpless response to achievement setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988)”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In other words, they may orient toward learning goals, which have been associated with high achievement motivation (cf. Nicholls, 1984) as well as continued displays of persistence, enjoyment, and good performance in the face of setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In particular, Dweck and her associates have linked ability attributions for failure to helpless responding in the face of failure (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“whereas learning goals, effort attributions, and mastery responses have been linked to an incremental view of intelligence as subject to improvement (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Mueller & Dweck, 1997).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“The measure was designed to contain a choice of tasks that embodied different goals and has been used successfully in previous studies (see Dweck & Leggett, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Indeed, the pattern of performance goals, ability attributions, and helpless postfailure responses described above has been associated with an entity view of intelligence as a fixed trait”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Dominant motivational models such as achievement goal theory and self-efficacy theory have adopted a sociocognitive perspective that highlights the importance of cognitive and social factors, as well as their complex interplay in understanding motivated behaviours (e.g.Covington, 2000;Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Schunk, 1991).”
From Teachers’ perceptions of declining participation in school music (2011) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Research on responses to feedback suggests that additional internal factors might play a role, including self-efficacy, which refers to students' beliefs about their capabilities to achieve a specific goal or task (Bandura, 1986); goal orientation, which refers to students' purpose for engaging in a task or behavior (Dweck and Leggett, 1988;Elliot, 2005;Mega et al., 2014); mindset, which are one's”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In general, people who believe that (motor) abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability.”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Citations
Cites
Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Rotter, J. B. (1966) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0092976 · Cited by 21,937
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
Erikson, E. H. (1959) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,863
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835
Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing.
Bem, S. L. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.4.354 · Cited by 4,408
Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.328 · Cited by 4,161
Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
Markus, H. R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 · Cited by 3,911
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
JONES, E. E. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,760
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2458 · Cited by 3,746
Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement.
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.54.1.5 · Cited by 3,098
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 9,601–9,700 of 10,306
The social contagion of challenge-seeking: behavioural and neural correlates
Ogulmus, C. (2024) · CentAUR (University of Reading) · doi:10.48683/1926.00117049
Gamby, S., & Bauer, C. F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21202054
Janson, M. P., & Janke, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.27093467
THE PREDICTIVE POWER OF GRIT VERSUS GROWTH MINDSET ON LATER LITERACY ACHIEVEMENT
Meyering, K. (2022) · University Libraries (University of Maryland) · doi:10.13016/dspace/xv4g-wbar
Sağlam, M. H. (2025) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0449639
Michels, J. (2023) · Technische Universität Dortmund Eldorado (Technische Universität Dortmund) · doi:10.17877/de290r-23938
Σερέλη, Σ. (2019) · University of Thessaly Institutional Repository (University of Thessaly) · doi:10.26253/heal.uth.8220
El impacto de las teorías implícitas de la inteligencia en la educación
Ávila Villa, B. B. (2024) · Ciencia y Educación · doi:10.5281/zenodo.10637274
ALEM, W. E., MNOUAR, O. E., & Rih, F. (2024) · Revue Internationale de la Recherche Scientifique et de l’Innovation (Revue-IRSI) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.13255207
Gamby, S., & Bauer, C. F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21202057
Gamby, S., & Bauer, C. F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21202051
Taylor, C. (2019) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0383248
Kellermann, C. (2023) · Refubium (Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin) · doi:10.17169/refubium-39521
Dynamic Capabilities and Expansion Opportunities in a Development Context: A Firm-level Perspective
Hussein, M. W. A. (2023) · SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) · doi:10.25501/soas.00039888
Towards a process model of evidence based decision-making
Criado-Perez, C. (2017) · UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) · doi:10.26190/unsworks/19822
Hoff, I. H. (2024) · Qucosa - Monarch (Chemnitz University of Technology) · doi:10.60687/2025-0060
Morgan, K., Reed, H., Garay, S. M., de Vocht, F., & Murphy, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26629104
Brueckmann, M., Teuber, Z., Hollmann, J., & Wild, E. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24277140
Gamby, S., & Bauer, C. F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21202060
(2023) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · doi:10.25403/upresearchdata.25210982
Santhappan, A. (2019) · University of Thessaly Institutional Repository (University of Thessaly) · doi:10.26253/heal.uth.8222
Hirsch, A. (2023) · Publication Server (Pädagogischen Hochschule Freiburg) · doi:10.60530/opus-3180
Perceptions of Aging Within and Across Age Groups in the Context of Intergenerational Dynamics
Kuball, T. (2024) · Qucosa (Saxon State and University Library Dresden) · doi:10.60687/2025-0136
Janson, M. P., Siebert, J., & Dickhäuser, O. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21303580
Janson, M. P., & Janke, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.27093470
Schreiber, C., & Schotanus-Dijkstra, M. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26681248
Ballou, S. D. (2018) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Ein kvalitativ intervjustudie av biologistudentar sin bruk av læringsstrategiar
Hersvik, S. B., & Leivdal, S. N. (2020) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
The Effects of Flipping an Undergraduate Precalculus Class
NC DOCKS at Appalachian State University, & Willis, J. A. (2014) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
Goal orientations and emotions: the role of cognitive appraisals and emotion regulation strategies
Sampasivam, L. (2013) · eScholarship@McGill (McGill) · doi:10.82308/42496
(2014) · Arizona State University Library Digital Repository (Arizona State University)
Motivation in Instrumental Music Teachers working in Whole Class Music Teaching
McNally, M. (2023) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
MOTIVATION och LÄRANDE sonderingar kring TVÅLÄRARSKAPET
Reichardt, E. S. (2023) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)
(2016) · Arizona State University Library Digital Repository (Arizona State University)
Mollo-Flores, M. E. (2023) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
Baschinger, P. (2017) · Unipub UB Graz (Universität Graz)
Macias-Zambrano, L. (2024) · Universidad de Córdoba Insitutional Repository (Universidad de Córdoba)
White, R. A. (2021) · The Sydney eScholarship Repository (The University of Sydney)
Melguizo Ibáñez, E. (2023) · Institutional Repository of the University of Granada (University of Granada)
Tober, J. E. (2018) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Influência das crenças e motivação individuais no valor subjetivo da negociação
Serôdio, A. C. P. (2013) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT)
Vanwynsberghe, G. (2017) · Lirias
Yik, B. J. (2022) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)
Relação entre tipos de motivação e objetivos: O papel moderador do tipo de avaliação
Lucas, P. H. P. (2024) · Repositório do ISCTE-IUL
Self-compassion in learning : primary school teachers’ perspectives
Pulkkinen, I., & Lakaniemi, S. (2023) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä)
Weitzberg, B. R. T. H. (2023) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT)
Der Einfluss von Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung und Feedback auf die Motivation zur Zielverfolgung
Czerwinka, H. M. (2017) · Unipub UB Graz (Universität Graz)
Fernandes, M. I. B. (2013) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT)
How the Interaction of Domain and Situational Achievement Goals Influences Task Performance.
BROCKBANK, R.-D. (2021) · Durham e-Theses (Durham University)
Weltevreden, G. M. (2021) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam)
Brown, E., & Luthe, A. (2021) · SOPHIA (St. Catherine University)
Blanco, Á. D. (2021) · Repositori digital de la UPF (Universitat Pompeu Fabra)
Söderström, M. (2025) · DiVA at Umeå University (Umeå University)
Das Lernen als Ziel - Motivationsförderliche Unterrichtsgestaltung in Theorie & Praxis
Benning, K. (2022) · OPUS (Augsburg University)
Merrell Gross, E. (2023) · ScholarWorks (Walden University)
Cargile, L. A. (2018) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
The impact of implicit theories on attitudes and responses to individuals with sexual convictions
Browne, B. (2024) · Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham)
The journey or the destination? Initial evidence on goal focus in adolescence
Fleming Hoff, B. J. (2021) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Bravo Ruiz, S. A. (2024) · Repositorio Institucional (Universidad de Cuenca)
Mindsets, mastery, and inquiry: Classroom impact on students' achievement goals
Gyles, P. D. T. (2016) · eScholarship@McGill (McGill) · doi:10.82308/13161
Pre-Service Teachers’ Mindset and Persistence in College Algebra and Statistics Units of Practice
Meiners, A. J., & Payne, A. M. (2023) · DergiPark (Istanbul University)
Priestley, M. J. (2023) · Durham e-Theses (Durham University)
Baron, R. (2023) · Huddersfield Research Portal (University of Huddersfield)
Castillo, C. V. T. (2023) · Open Access at Essex (University of Essex)
Experiences of Undergraduate Nursing Faculty Adapting to the Changes of the Next Generation NCLEX
Whiteside, M. K. (2024) · ScholarWorks (Walden University)
Exploring ethnicity's role in the level of cognitive processing adopted during depressive rumination
Young, G. R. (2018) · California State University ScholarWorks (system-wide DSpace)
Formativ bedömning och problemlösning i matematik
Söderström, S. (2023) · Diva portal (Dalarna University Library)
Taavitsainen, A. (2024) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä)
The Impact of an Emotion Malleability Belief Manipulation on Emotion Regulation
Wilson, A. C. (2019) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Serra, M. S. (2021) · Repository of Digital Objects for Teaching Research and Culture (University of Valencia)
La mesure des théories implicites en mathématiques adoptées par les élèves du primaire
Thibert-Dagenais, C. (2021) · Corpus Université Laval (Université Laval)
Connors, S. (2023) · Archipel (Université du Québec à Montréal)
(21954659), F. L. (2023) · Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter)
Rodrigues, D. M. M. (2019) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT)
Verberg, F. (2022) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam)
Dynamics of Causal Attribution
Kulzhabayeva, D., Williams, J. J., & Danks, D. J. (2024) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
St-Germain-Duval, E. (2023) · Archipel (Université du Québec à Montréal)
Coley, S. L. (2017) · Huskie Commons (Northern Illinois University)
Challco Ojeda de Gutierrez, Y. (2021) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
Sánchez Cortés, I. (2021) · Espacio Tiempo y Forma Serie I Prehistoria y Arqueología
Philyaw, K. (2021) · Durham e-Theses (Durham University)
Little, S. (2023) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Learning the Theory of Emotional Design by Application to Pandemic Face Masks
Rajcic, K. E. (2021) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Teachers, Mindset and Mathematics
Liliekvist, A., & Lindberg, A. (2024) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)
University Counselor Experiences with the Surge in Mental Healthcare Demand in the United States
Knight, J. C. (2024) · ScholarWorks (Walden University)
In Whose Interest? Nursing Pre-Licensure Educational Approval
Sherban, C. L. (2025) · HARVEST (University of Saskatchewan)
Who is the joke on? The effects of humor by managers versus rank and file
Garner, P., & Guéry, L. (2026) · GRH · doi:10.3917/grh.pr.0009
Reigal, R. E., Crespillo-Jurado, M., Morillo Baro, J. P., & Hernández Mendo, A. (2018) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
Hizmet içi eğitim kursu alan öğretmenlerin kişisel epistemolojilerindeki değişiklikler
Atlı, H. H. (2021) · Bilkent University Institutional Repository (Bilkent University)
Bates, L. E., & Bates, L. E. (2025) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Münchow, H. (2016) · Online Publication Service of Würzburg University (Würzburg University)
Sykes, E. (2023) · SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University)
Alassaf, A. S. M. (2023) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton)
Motivating Young Adolescents in Middle School General Music
Giotta, K. K. (2020) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Caffull, S. (2024) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York)
Gawronski, B., & Brannon, S. M. (2018) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Atzmüller, A. J. (2021) · University Library Linz repository (Johannes Kepler Universitat Linz)
Emancipare al plurale. La ricerca empirica in educazione per promuovere il Growth Mindset
Ricci, A. (2024) · Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna)
Metadata
- Authors
- Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L.
- ORCID
- Dweck, Carol S.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1988-04
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 256-273
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2167884222
- Semantic Scholar
- bea6bdcd90212431bc464f638431b39ff6427855
- Cited by
- 9,745
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 382 · 2025: 462 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 421 · 2022: 477 · 2021: 472 · 2020: 566 · 2019: 435 · 2018: 386 · 2017: 407 · 2016: 417 · 2015: 392 · 2014: 403 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 385
- FWCI
- 55.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- mastery orientation, learned helplessness, mindset, motivation, personality, goal orientation, adaptive and maladaptive behavior, social cognitive model, cognitive processes, emotional processing, behavioral patterns
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
