The cocktail party problem: What is it? How can it be solved? And why should animal behaviorists study it?
Open accessAbstract
Animals often use acoustic signals to communicate in groups or social aggregations in which multiple individuals signal within a receiver's hearing range. Consequently, receivers face challenges related to acoustic interference and auditory masking that are not unlike the human cocktail party problem, which refers to the problem of perceiving speech in noisy social settings. Understanding the sensory solutions to the cocktail party problem has been a goal of research on human hearing and speech communication for several decades. Despite a general interest in acoustic signaling in groups, animal behaviorists have devoted comparatively less attention toward understanding how animals solve problems equivalent to the human cocktail party problem. After illustrating how humans and nonhuman animals experience and overcome similar perceptual challenges in cocktail-party-like social environments, this article reviews previous psychophysical and physiological studies of humans and nonhuman animals to describe how the cocktail party problem can be solved. This review also outlines several basic and applied benefits that could result from studies of the cocktail party problem in the context of animal acoustic communication.
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Real ecosystems are messy cocktail-party environments full of overlapping calls, echoes, and background noise, making meaning attribution challenging.
“real ecosystems are messy “cocktail-party” environments (Bee and Micheyl 2008), full of overlapping calls, echoes, and background noise.”
From Listening forward: emerging roles of bioacoustics in ecology, evolution, and conservation (2026) · cites this paper as Bee and Micheyl 2008
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Free-field binaural unmasking in ferrets.
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Spatial unmasking of birdsong in human listeners: Energetic and informational factors
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Self-citationGABA Is Involved in Spatial Unmasking in the Frog Auditory Midbrain
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Perception of harmonics in the combination long call of cottontop tamarins, Saguinus oedipus
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Self-citationEffects of onset asynchrony on pitch perception: Adaptation or grouping?
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Perception and acoustic communication networks
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Effects of temporal fringes on fundamental-frequency discrimination
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Self-citationEnvironmental Variables and the Fundamental Nature of Hearing
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Signal detection in amplitude‐modulated maskers. II. Processing in the songbird's auditory forebrain
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Hearing Out Repeating Elements in Randomly Varying Multitone Sequences: A Case of Streaming?
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Detection and F discrimination of harmonic complex tones in the presence of competing tones or noise
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Self-citationPitch identification of simultaneous dichotic two-tone complexes
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Sound Source Perception and Stream Segregation in Nonhuman Vertebrate Animals
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Contributions of binaural information to the separation of different sound sources
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Self-citationPerception of mistuned harmonics in complex sounds by the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana).
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Self-citationAcross-Channel Processes in Masking
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Comodulation masking release in subjects with unilateral and bilateral hearing impairment
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Discriminating coherence in spectro-temporal patterns
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Spectral regularity as a factor distinct from harmonic relations in auditory grouping.
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Detecting modulated signals in modulated noise: (II) neural thresholds in the songbird forebrain
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Self-citationDetecting modulated signals in modulated noise: (I) behavioural auditory thresholds in a songbird
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Auditory Perceptual Organization Inside and Outside the Laboratory
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Self-citationTemporal Coherence in the Perceptual Organization and Cortical Representation of Auditory Scenes
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Starnberger, I., Poth, D., Peram, P. S., Schulz, S., Miguel Vences, B., Knudsen, J. T., Barej, M. F., Rödel, M., Walzl, M., & Hödl, W. (2013) · Biological Journal of the Linnean Society · doi:10.1111/bij.12167 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Segregating Complex Sound Sources through Temporal Coherence
Krishnan, L., Elhilali, M., & Shamma, S. (2014) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003985 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Objective and Subjective Psychophysical Measures of Auditory Stream Integration and Segregation
Micheyl, C., & Oxenham, A. J. (2010) · Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology · doi:10.1007/s10162-010-0227-2 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationMale great tit song perch selection in response to noise‐dependent female feedback
Halfwerk, W. H., Bot, S., & Slabbekoorn, H. (2012) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.02018.x · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Nityananda, V., & Bee, M. A. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021191 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationSound source perception in anuran amphibians
Bee, M. A. (2012) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2011.12.014 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationNeilans, E. G., Holfoth, D. P., Radziwon, K. E., Portfors, C. V., & Dent, M. L. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085405 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Ullrich, R. C., Norton, P., & Scharff, C. (2016) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.11.012 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Avian Sound Perception in Noise
Dooling, R. J., & Blumenrath, S. H. (2013) · Animal signals and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41494-7_8 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Competitive masking of vibrational signals during mate searching in a treehopper
Legendre, F., Marting, P. R., & Cocroft, R. B. (2011) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.003 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Bee, M. A., & Schwartz, J. J. (2009) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.3224707 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationMultiple signals and male spacing affect female preference at cocktail parties in treefrogs
Richardson, C., & Lengagne, T. (2009) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1836 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Scene analysis in the natural environment
Lewicki, M. S., Olshausen, B. A., Surlykke, A., & Moss, C. F. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00199 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Schema learning for the cocktail party problem
Woods, K., & McDermott, J. H. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1801614115 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Using the Past to Understand the Present: Coping with Natural and Anthropogenic Noise
Gomes, D. G. E., Francis, C. D., & Barber, J. R. (2020) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biaa161 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Vibrational Communication Networks: Eavesdropping and Biotic Noise
Virant‐Doberlet, M., Mazzoni, V., de Groot, M., Polajnar, J., Lucchi, A., Symondson, W. O. C., & Čokl, A. (2014) · Animal signals and communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-43607-3_7 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Chhaya, V., Lahiri, S., Jagan, M. A., Mohan, R., Pathaw, N. A., & Krishnan, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.706445 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Importance of Ambient Sound Level to Characterise Anuran Habitat
Goutte, S., Dubois, A., & Legendre, F. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078020 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Bee, M. A., Micheyl, C., Oxenham, A. J., & Klump, G. M. (2010) · Journal of Comparative Physiology A · doi:10.1007/s00359-010-0542-4 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationBlock-Based High Performance CNN Architectures for Frame-Level Overlapping Speech Detection
Yousefi, M., & Hansen, J. H. L. (2020) · IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio Speech and Language Processing · doi:10.1109/taslp.2020.3036237 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The Build-up of Auditory Stream Segregation: A Different Perspective
Deike, S., Heil, P. F., Böckmann‐Barthel, M., & Brechmann, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00461 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Improve automatic detection of animal call sequences with temporal context
Madhusudhana, S., Shiu, Y., Klinck, H., Fleishman, E., Liu, X., Nosal, E., Helble, T. A., Cholewiak, D., Gillespie, D. M., Širović, A., et al. (2021) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2021.0297 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Perceptual bistability in auditory streaming: How much do stimulus features matter?
Denham, S. L., Gyimesi, K., Stefanics, G., & Winkler, I. (2013) · Learning & Perception · doi:10.1556/lp.5.2013.suppl2.6 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
A rain forest dusk chorus: cacophony or sounds of silence?
Jain, M., Diwakar, S., Bahuleyan, J., Deb, R., & Balakrishnan, R. (2013) · Evolutionary Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10682-013-9658-7 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Recent advances in exploring the neural underpinnings of auditory scene perception
Snyder, J. S., & Elhilali, M. (2017) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13317 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Schwartz, J. J., Hunce, R., Lentine, B., & Powers, K. M. (2015) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-015-2016-8 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Spatial release from masking in a free-field source identification task by gray treefrogs
Nityananda, V., & Bee, M. A. (2012) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2012.01.003 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationTool-use-associated sound in the evolution of language
Larsson, M. L. (2015) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-015-0885-x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Signal recognition by frogs in the presence of temporally fluctuating chorus-shaped noise
Vélez, A., & Bee, M. A. (2010) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-010-0983-3 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationLegett, H. D., Page, R. A., & Bernal, X. E. (2019) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.1067 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Coping with a changing soundscape: avoidance, adjustments and adaptations
Potvin, D. A. (2016) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-016-0999-9 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Polyandry, Sperm Competition, and the Evolution of Anuran Amphibians
Roberts, J. D., & Byrne, P. G. (2011) · Advances in the study of behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-380896-7.00001-0 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Stange, N., Page, R. A., Ryan, M. J., & Taylor, R. C. (2016) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.07.005 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Lee, N., Ward, J. L., Vélez, A., Micheyl, C., & Bee, M. A. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.01.031 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationBioCPPNet: automatic bioacoustic source separation with deep neural networks
Bermant, P. C. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02790-2 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Energetic Masking and Masking Release
Culling, J. F., & Stone, M. A. (2017) · Springer handbook of auditory research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51662-2_3 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Individual recognition of opposite sex vocalizations in the zebra finch
D'Amelio, P. B., Klumb, M. M., Adreani, N. M., Gahr, M. L., & Maat, A. T. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05982-x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Behavioral measures of auditory streaming in ferrets (Mustela putorius).
Ma, L., Micheyl, C., Yin, P., Oxenham, A. J., & Shamma, S. (2010) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018273 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationRelative comparisons of call parameters enable auditory grouping in frogs
Farris, H. E., & Ryan, M. J. (2011) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms1417 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Noise affects the shape of female preference functions for acoustic signals
Reichert, M. S., & Ronacher, B. (2014) · Evolution · doi:10.1111/evo.12592 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Plénet, S., Richardson, C., Joly, P. B., Lengagne, T., & Léna, J. (2010) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/000579510x530221 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Feature-Selective Attention Adaptively Shifts Noise Correlations in Primary Auditory Cortex
Downer, J. D., Rapone, B. C., Verhein, J. R., O’Connor, K. N., & Sutter, M. L. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3169-16.2017 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Goodale, E., Ruxton, G. D., & Beauchamp, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00141 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Bee, M. A., & Riemersma, K. K. (2008) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.01.026 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationCrossmodal Comparisons of Signal Components Allow for Relative-Distance Assessment
Halfwerk, W. H., Page, R. A., Taylor, R. C., Wilson, P. S., & Ryan, M. J. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.068 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Shinn‐Cunningham, B. G. (2017) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2017_jslhr-h-17-0080 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Inter-signal interaction and uncertain information in anuran multimodal signals
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Auditory stream segregation and the perception of across-frequency synchrony.
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Self-citationDivergent morphological and acoustic traits in sympatric communities of Asian barbets
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Siegert, M. E., Römer, H., & Hartbauer, M. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.089888 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Impact of Man-Made Sound on Birds and Their Songs
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‘Crazy love’: nonlinearity and irrationality in mate choice
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Within-individual variation in sexual displays: signal or noise?
Tanner, J. C., & Bee, M. A. (2018) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/ary165 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationImproving End-to-End Single-Channel Multi-Talker Speech Recognition
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Kuczynski, M. C., Vélez, A., Schwartz, J. J., & Bee, M. A. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.044628 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationAuditory stream segregation for alternating and synchronous tones.
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Behavioral Sensitivity to Broadband Binaural Localization Cues in the Ferret
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Ward, J. L., Buerkle, N. P., & Bee, M. A. (2013) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2013.09.006 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationBlind Nonnegative Source Separation Using Biological Neural Networks
Pehlevan, C., Mohan, S., & Chklovskii, D. B. (2017) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco_a_01007 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Römer, H. (2019) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13321 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of auditory species recognition in birds
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Calling dynamics and call synchronization in a local group of unison bout callers
Jones, D. L., Jones, R. L., & Ratnam, R. (2013) · Journal of Comparative Physiology A · doi:10.1007/s00359-013-0867-x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Klappert, K., Samarra, F. I. P., Miller, P. J. O., & Brumm, H. (2009) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853909x463713 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bee, M. A., & Micheyl, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- ORCID
- Bee, Mark A.
- Venue
- Journal of Comparative Psychology
- Published
- 2008
- Volume
- 122
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 235-251
- ISSN
- 0093-4127 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2087
- 0735-7036
- PMC
- PMC2692487
- OpenAlex
- W2047527596
- Cited by
- 347
- References
- 208
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 11.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of comparative psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R03DC008396; R01DC07657)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Developmental Biology › Animal Vocal Communication and Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Marine animal studies overview
- Keywords
- cocktail party problem, auditory masking, acoustic interference, speech perception in noise, social signaling, auditory scene analysis, animal hearing
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Communication, Behavior, Animal, Behaviorism, Cues, Humans, Perceptual Masking, Sound Spectrography, Space Perception, Time Factors
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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