Cited by 463Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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Fluid vulnerability theory: a cognitive approach to understanding the process of acute and chronic suicide risk

Rudd, M. David·2006·Cognition and suicide: Theory, research, and therapy.

DOI 10.1037/11377-016

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Items 201–300 of 436

Bullying victimization and suicidal ideation in adolescents: The moderation effect of family, teachers and peers support
Galindo‐Domínguez, H., & Iglesias, D. L. (2023) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075231199166 · Cited by 12
“When combined with a sense of fearlessness, these Rudd (2006) Fluid vulnerability theory This model elucidates the process by which the link between thoughts, emotions, and actions becomes reinforced in individuals who engage in suicidal behavior.”
Background
The Application of AI to Ecological Momentary Assessment Data in Suicide Research: Systematic Review
Melia, R., Schafer, K. M., Rogers, M. L., Wilson, E., & Joiner, T. E. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/63192 · Cited by 11
An Evidence-Based Approach to Managing Suicidal Patients in the Patient-Centered Medical Home
Bryan, C. J., Corso, K. A., & Macalanda, J. (2014) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2014.04.006 · Cited by 10
A prospective examination of COVID‐19‐related social distancing practices on suicidal ideation
Ammerman, B. A., Burke, T. A., McClure, K. E., Jacobucci, R., & Liu, R. T. (2021) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12782 · Cited by 10
Soldier Background and Postinvestigative Events Associated With Timing of Suicide Following Deployment of U.S. Army National Guard Soldiers
Griffith, J. E., & Bryan, C. J. (2017) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1037/mil0000163 · Cited by 10
“This is consistent with the fluid vulnerability theory of suicide (Rudd, 2006), which posits that an individual’s vulnerability to suicide can be variable over time, in particular, specific “triggering” events leading to greater suicide risk.”
Result
Suicide amongst the Inuit of Nunavut: An Exploration of Life Trajectories
Affleck, W., Chachamovich, E., Chawky, N., Beauchamp, G., Turecki, G., & Séguin, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17061812 · Cited by 10
Defining Treatment Completion According to Patient Competency: A Case Example Using Brief Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (BCBT) for Suicidal Patients
Bryan, C. J., Gartner, A. M., Wertenberger, E. G., Delano, K. A., Wilkinson, E., Breitbach, J., Bruce, T. O., & Rudd, M. (2012) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0026307 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Predictors of Unbearability, Unlovability, and Unsolvability in Veterans With Military-Sexual-Trauma-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Wiblin, J. L., Holder, N. D., Holliday, R. P., & Surís, A. (2018) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260518777554 · Cited by 10
“This vulnerability is exacerbated by an individual’s pattern of assumptions (i.e., “suicidal belief system”) about one’s self, the world, and others as they pertain to suicide (Rudd, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Prospective association between suicide cognitions and emotional responses to a laboratory stressor: The mediating role of nightly subjective sleep quality
Grove, J. L., Smith, T. W., Carlson, S. E., Bryan, C. J., Crowell, S. E., Czajkowski, L. A., Williams, P., & Parkhurst, K. A. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.060 · Cited by 11
The assessment of pathways towards suicide in adolescent patients: A PDM‐2‐oriented approach
Williams, R., Fiorentino, F., Lingiardi, V., Moselli, M., Sharp, C., & Tanzilli, A. (2024) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12529 · Cited by 9
Men's Suicidal thoughts and behaviors and conformity to masculine norms: A person-centered, latent profile approach
Eggenberger, L., Spangenberg, L., Genuchi, M. C., & Walther, A. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39094 · Cited by 10
Thinking About Suicidal Thinking: Suicide-Related Metacognitions’ Relation to Maladaptive Processing of Suicidal Thoughts
Forkmann, T., Fiorentino, L., Müßeler, S. S., Schüler, J., Heilmann-Stiegler, T., Barke, A., & Teismann, T. (2025) · International Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-025-00239-2 · Cited by 10
“…as the acute suicidal affective disturbance (ASAD; Rogers et al., 2017a; b; Tucker et al., 2016), the suicide crisis syndrome (SCS; Galynker, 2017; Melzer et al., 2024; Yaseen et al., 2019), the cognitive model of suicide (Wenzel & Beck, 2008), and the fluid vulnerability theory (FVT; Rudd, 2006).”
Self-Esteem and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors: A Meta-Analytic Review
Buecker, S., Doll, J., Diaz, S. A., Haehner, P., Berg, F., Kaurin, A., & Teismann, T. (2025) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026241308163 · Cited by 20
“…well with existing theories, such as the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005; Van Orden et al., 2010) or the fluid-vulnerability theory (Rudd, 2006): Individuals reporting low self-esteem are at a higher risk for also reporting STBs as indicated by negative associations between…”
Influential
Aberrant connectivity in the right amygdala and right middle temporal gyrus before and after a suicide attempt: Examining markers of suicide risk
Jagger-Rickels, A. C., Stumps, A. D., Rothlein, D., Evans, T. C., Lee, D. J., McGlinchey, R. E., Degutis, J. M., & Esterman, M. S. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.061 · Cited by 11
Evidence for Altered Electroencephalography Coherence in Depressed Adolescents with Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors
Özger, C., Chumachenko, S. Y., McVoy, M. K., Croarkin, P. E., & Camsari, D. D. (2023) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2023.0033 · Cited by 10
Uncovering the role of substance use in suicide attempts using a mixed‐methods approach
Diefenbach, G. J., Stubbing, J., Rice, T. B., Lord, K. A., Rudd, M. D., & Tolin, D. F. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13019 · Cited by 11
Self-citation
Samobójstwo w kulturze dzisiejszej. Listy samobójców jako gatunek wypowiedzi i fakt kulturowy
Witkowska, H. (2020) · Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego eBooks · doi:10.31338/uw.9788323546955 · Cited by 9
Risk factors of suicidal behaviors in a high‐risk longitudinal veteran sample: A network analysis
Saulnier, K. G., Volarov, M., Velimirović, M., Bauer, B. W., Kolnogorova, K., Ashrafioun, L., Stecker, T. A., & Allan, N. P. (2022) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12918 · Cited by 8
The Connections Matter: Bi-Directional Learning in Program Evaluation and Practice-Oriented Research
Douglas, S. R., Page, A. C., Moltu, C., Kyron, M. J., & Satterthwaite, T. (2023) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-023-01304-8 · Cited by 11
“This follows theoretical positions suggesting the risk for suicide is dynamic and understanding the interplay with static risk factors (e.g., dispositional distress tolerance issues) is critical (Rudd, 2006).”
Empirically-Based Outpatient Treatment for a Patient at Risk for Suicide: The Case of "John"
Bryan, C. J. (2007) · Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy · doi:10.14713/pcsp.v3i2.897 · Cited by 8
“…Volume 3, Module 2, Article 1, pp. 1-40, 05-03-07 [copyright by author] A full suicide risk assessment was subsequently conducted during the interview, consistent with the risk assessment model described in detail by Rudd, Joiner, and Rajab (2001) and Bryan and Rudd (2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Development and validation of the Durham Risk Score for estimating suicide attempt risk: A prospective cohort analysis
Kimbrel, N. A., Beckham, J. C., Calhoun, P. S., DeBeer, B. B., Keane, T. M., Lee, D. J., Marx, B. P., Meyer, E. C., Morissette, S. B., & Elbogen, E. B. (2021) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003713 · Cited by 9
The Reliability and Construct Validity of a Single‐Item Assessment of Suicidal Ideation Among Patients With Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Joiner, T. E., Robison, M., Manwaring, J. L., Rienecke, R. D., Grange, D. L., Duffy, A., Mehler, P. S., & Blalock, D. V. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23768 · Cited by 10
Positive Childhood Experiences, Suicide Cognitions, Subjective Happiness, and Mental Well-Being in Young Adults: A Half-Longitudinal Serial Mediation Study
Akbulut, Ö. F. (2025) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-025-10162-6 · Cited by 10
“Moreover, the cognitive model of suicide suggests that maladaptive cognitive patterns and self-schemas may increase suicide risk and negatively affect mental well-being [52 ].”
What predicts suicidality among psychologists? An examination of risk and resilience
Zuckerman, S. N., Lightsey, O. R., & White, J. M. (2022) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2022.2042753 · Cited by 8
“Based on empirical findings (Kessler et al., 1999; Mo scicki, 1997) and recent theories that specify a broad array of risk factors (e.g., Rudd, 2006; Van Heeringen, 2012; Van Orden et al., 2008), the current study examines sociodemographic, mental health, past trauma, and work risk factors.”
Background
Reliability and validity of the Suicide Cognitions Scale-Revised (SCS-R) in emerging adulthood in Turkey
Bekaroğlu, E., Bulut, B. P., & Demirbaş, H. (2023) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2023.2240742 · Cited by 8
“However, chronic suicide risk arises from the vulnerability of the individual to suicidality, including factors in the behavioral, affective, physiological, and cognitive domains (Rudd, 2006).”
Background
Development and Validation of the Fearlessness About Suicide Scale
Grunewald, W., Perkins, N. M., Jeon, M. E., Klonsky, E. D., Joiner, T. E., & Smith, A. R. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231200866 · Cited by 8
“The past two decades have seen a steady increase in ideation-to-action theories that attempt to answer this very question (Joiner, 2005; Klonsky et al., 2018, 2021; O’Connor & Kirtley, 2018; Rudd, 2006; Van Orden et al., 2010).”
Multiple pathways to suicide: A network analysis based on three components of psychological pain
Fang, S., Zhong, R., Zhou, W., Xu, J., Liu, Q., Wu, X., Li, H., & Wang, X. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.11.072 · Cited by 8
Self-Forgiveness, Self-Harm, and Suicidal Behavior: Understanding the Role of Forgiving the Self in the Act of Hurting One’s Self
Hirsch, J. K., Webb, J. R., & Toussaint, L. L. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60573-9_18 · Cited by 12
Elucidating the chronic, complex nature of suicidal ideation: A national qualitative study of veterans with a recent suicide attempt
Denneson, L. M., McDonald, K. L., Tompkins, K. J., & Meunier, C. C. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2020.100030 · Cited by 8
Testing Whether Suicide Capability Has a Dynamic Propensity: The Role of Affect and Arousal on Momentary Fluctuations in Suicide Capability
Law, K. C., & Anestis, M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.590187 · Cited by 8
“The Fluid Vulnerability Theory of suicide (Rudd, 2006) posits that suicide risk fluctuates based on the interaction between predisposing baseline and acute, context dependent risk factors.”
Background
Associations between goal orientation and suicidal thoughts and behaviors at one-month follow-up: Indirect effects through ruminative flooding
Rogers, M. L., Cao, E., Sinclair, C. M., & GALYNKER, I. I. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103945 · Cited by 8
Disrupted interoception in Military Service Members and Veterans with a history of suicidality
Smith, A. R., Witte, T. K., Grunewald, W., Kinkel‐Ram, S. S., Santivasci, C. A., Crosby, E. S., Williams, T., Esche, A., Tubman, D., & Dretsch, M. N. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12942 · Cited by 8
Six Major Steps to Make Investigations of Suicide Valuable for Learning and Prevention
Fröding, E., Vincent, C. A., Andersson-Gäre, B., Westrin, Å., & Ros, A. (2022) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2022.2133652 · Cited by 7
“Psychological theories can provide a framework to understand how a complex inter-play of factors combines to increase the risk of suicide, and to identify potentially modifiable targets for treatment and reducing suicide risk (Klonsky & May, 2015; O ’ Connor, 2011; Rudd, 2006).”
Background
Questions for Suicide Risk Assessment: There, Then and How to Measure?
Chistopolskaya, K. A., Игоревич, К. Н., & Enikolopov, S. N. (2023) · Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.17759/cpp.2023310201 · Cited by 7
Group brief cognitive behavioral therapy for suicide prevention compared to dialectal behavior therapy skills group for military service members: a study protocol of a randomized controlled trial
Baker, J. C., Grover, S. G., Gunn, L. H., Charles, C., Rikli, H., Franks, M. J., Khazem, L. R., Williams, S. R. M., Ammendola, E., Washington, C., et al. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05282-x · Cited by 8
“BCBT adheres to the fluid vulnerability theory, which describes the ephemerality of heightened suicide risk [31].”
Background
Reliability and Validation of the Hebrew Version of the Reasons for Attempting Suicide Questionnaire ( RASQ ‐ H ) and its Importance for Mental Pain
Levinger, S., & Holden, R. R. (2014) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12087 · Cited by 7
A Systematic Review of Suicide Risk in Veterans: Depression is a More Powerful Predictor than Comorbid Psychiatric Disorders
Athey, A. J., & Overholser, J. C. (2018) · Military Behavioral Health · doi:10.1080/21635781.2018.1442757 · Cited by 7
“Depressed individuals may be at increased risk of developing suicide-specific thoughts (Rudd, 2006) or of viewing suicide as a way of ending psychological pain (Gensichen, Teising, K€onig,”
Background
Psychometric properties of the German version of the suicide cognitions scale in two clinical samples
Spangenberg, L., Glaesmer, H., Hallensleben, N., Schönfelder, A., Rath, D., Forkmann, T., & Teismann, T. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.02.047 · Cited by 7
Hazardous drinking and clinical correlates among suicidal patients receiving psychiatric inpatient care at military medical settings
Luk, J. W., LaCroix, J. M., Thompson, M. F., Darmour, C. A., Perera, K. U., Goldston, D. B., Soumoff, A. A., Weaver, J. J., & Ghahramanlou‐Holloway, M. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106178 · Cited by 7
Depressed adolescents’ exposure to suicide attempts and suicide loss
Athey, A. J., Overholser, J. C., & Beale, E. E. (2021) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1864063 · Cited by 7
“Adverse outcomes may also be triggered by alterations in affective symptoms (Campos et al., 2018) or attitudes about suicide (Rudd, 2006) among those exposed to suicidal behaviors.”
Background
Prediction in mental health research and its limits (or why life can only be understood backwards but must be lived forwards)
Nelson, B., & Hartmann, J. (2017) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.12530 · Cited by 7
“research, such as fluid vulnerability theory (Rudd, 2006), that can pro-”
Background
Dynamic association between suicidal ambivalence and suicide risk among individuals with a history of suicide attempts.
Fartacek, C., Fartacek, R., Schiepek, G. K., Sturm, J., Aichhorn, W., & Plöderl, M. (2024) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13096 · Cited by 6
Just-in-Time Adaptive Interventions (JITAIs) for Suicide Prevention: Tempering Expectations
Bryan, C. J., Wastler, H. M., Allan, N. P., Khazem, L. R., & Rudd, M. D. (2022) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.2022.2132775 · Cited by 7
“BCBT’s underlying mechanisms of action remain unknown, but its considerable potency is probably attributable in part to its foundation in the fluid vulnerability theory (FVT), which conceptualizes suicide risk as an inherently dynamic process (Rudd, 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Elevated interoceptive deficits in individuals with eating disorders and self‐injurious thoughts and behaviors: A replication and extension
Velkoff, E. A., Perkins, N. M., Dodd, D. R., Brown, T. A., Kaye, W. H., & Wierenga, C. E. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13024 · Cited by 6
“The fluid vulnerability theory of suicide suggests that while chronic, stable properties of suicidal ideation exist, recent changes in suicidality are more strongly associated with future suicidal behavior (Bryan et al., 2020; Rudd, 2006).”
Why Should Developmental Scientists Engage in Research on Adolescent Suicide? The Case for Developmentally Informed Suicidology
Morris‐Perez, P. A., Benzekri, A., & Boccieri, G. R. (2024) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-010923-094742 · Cited by 9
Phrase-level pairwise topic modeling to uncover helpful peer responses to online suicidal crises
Jiang, M., Ammerman, B. A., Zeng, Q., Jacobucci, R., & Brodersen, A. S. (2020) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-020-0513-5 · Cited by 6
“These topics support the Fluid Vulnerability Theory (Rudd, 2006) of suicide.”
BackgroundInfluential
Theories of Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors: What Exists and What Is Needed to Advance Youth Suicide Research
Hausmann‐Stabile, C., Glenn, C. R., & Kandlur, R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82465-5_2 · Cited by 11
Psychometric Properties of an Online Administered Version of the Suicide Stroop Task
Moscardini, E. H., & Tucker, R. P. (2022) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-022-09994-4 · Cited by 6
“This can contribute both to baseline risk for STBs and the severity of suicidal crises (Rudd, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Consultation as a means of veteran suicide prevention.
Gutierrez, P. M., Brenner, L. A., Olson-Madden, J. H., Breshears, R. E., Homaifar, B. Y., Betthauser, L. M., Staves, P. J., & Adler, L. E. (2009) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0016497 · Cited by 6
“…the process a wealth of information is obtained and integrated with (1) current theory (e.g., Joiner, 2005; Mann, Waternaux, Haas, & Malone, 1999; Rudd, 2006), (2) empirical evidence from the literature (e.g., Bullman & Kang, 1996; Kaplan, Huguet, McFarland, & Newsom, 2007; Kotler, Iancu,…”
BackgroundMethod
Hacia un enfoque contextual-existencial del suicidio: recomendaciones para la prevención
González, M. G., Haro, J. G., García-Pascual, H., Pérez, M. T. S., Barrio‐Martínez, S., & Oviedo, J. V. (2021) · Clínica Contemporánea · doi:10.5093/cc2021a3 · Cited by 6
“Finalmente, el suicidio (así como muchos de los factores de riesgo) es una realidad dinámico-fluctuante (más que fija) susceptible de cambio de un día para otro o incluso en horas (Rudd, 2006).”
Background
Predicting self-injurious thoughts in daily life using ambulatory assessment of state cognition
Le, T. P., Moscardini, E. H., Cowan, T., Elvevåg, B., Holmlund, T. B., Foltz, P. W., Tucker, R. P., Schwartz, E. K., & Cohen, A. S. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.04.013 · Cited by 6
Shorter and longer-term risk for non-fatal suicide attempts among male U.S. military veterans after discharge from psychiatric hospitalization
Britton, P. C., Crasta, D. J., Bohnert, K. M., Kane, C. P., Klein, J. M., & Pigeon, W. R. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.08.027 · Cited by 6
Courses of suicidal ideation among military veterans in residential treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder
Smith, N. B., Sippel, L. M., Rozek, D. C., Spangler, P. T., Traber, D., Straud, C. L., Hoff, R., & Harpaz-Rotem, I. (2020) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22993 · Cited by 6
“As noted in FVT, when symptoms including cognitive, behavioral, physiological, and emotional, are managed, suicide risk reduces (Rudd, 2006).”
Background
In your wildest dreams: the language and psychological features of dreams
Niederhoffer, K. G., Schler, J., Crutchley, P., Loveys, K., & Coppersmith, G. (2017) · Workshop on Computational Linguistics and Clinical Psychology (CLPsych) · doi:10.18653/v1/w17-3102 · Cited by 7
“Considered in context of the Fluid Vulnerability Theory, dream content could serve as one of many dynamic, near-term risk factors for detecting transitions into psychological crisis (Rudd, 2006).”
Background
Integrating Treatments for Suicidal Patients into an Effective Package
Henriques, G. R. (2007) · Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy · doi:10.14713/pcsp.v3i2.900 · Cited by 6
Near-suicide: A mindsponge-based investigation into the psychology of patients with serious illnesses withdrawing from treatmentPreprint
Vuong, Q., Le, T.-T., Jin, R., Nguyen, H.-S., Vuong, T., & Nguyen, M. (2022) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/rsptq · Cited by 6
Acute suicidal ideation in context: highlighting sentiment-based markers through the diary entries of a clinically depressed sample
Lekkas, D., Collins, A. C., Heinz, M. V., Griffin, T. Z., Pillai, A., Nepal, S. K., Mackin, D. M., Campbell, A. T., & Jacobson, N. C. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07108-4 · Cited by 4
“While the field of suicidology acknowledges the temporal complexity of STB presentation, Fluid Vulnerability Theory (FVT; [24]) is the only theoretical model of STB that explicitly supports the conceptualization of SI as a dynamic change process with fluctuations over short time scales (i.e., hours…”
Future Directions: Targeting Social Contribution in Youth Suicide Prevention
Edenbaum, E. R., & Buitron, V. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2025.2521852 · Cited by 6
“Through increasing perceived social utility and countering internalized liability, such programs can interrupt cognitive-affective pathways implicated in suicide belief systems (Rogers et al., 2019; Rudd, 2006).”
Influential
Testing the Integrated Motivational-Volitional Model of suicidal behavior in a young Danish population
Christiansen, E., Konieczna, A., Larsen, C. P., Jakobsen, S. G., & O´Connor, R. C. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08049-2 · Cited by 5
“The IMV model, similar to the interpersonal theory of suicide (IPTS) [39], the three-step theory (3ST) [13] and the fluid vulnerability theory (FVT) [30] helps clinicians and stakeholders to better understand the suicidal process.”
The benefits of making peace with pain: chronic pain acceptance moderates the indirect effect of perceived burdensomeness between pain severity and suicidal cognitions
Hale, W. J., Vacek, S., Crabtree, M. A., Grelle, K., Bryan, C. J., McGeary, D. D., & Kanzler, K. E. (2023) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnad042 · Cited by 5
Brief relationship support as a selective suicide prevention intervention: Piloting the Relationship Checkup in veteran couples with relationship and mental health concerns
Crasta, D. J., Funderburk, J. S., Gray, T. D., Córdova, J. V., & Britton, P. C. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12983 · Cited by 11
Measures of Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Recommendations for Use in Clinical and Research Settings
Liu, R. T., Bettis, A. H., Lawrence, H. R., Walsh, R. F. L., Sheehan, A. E., Pollak, O. H., Stephenson, A. R., Kautz, M. M., & Marlowe, R. M. (2024) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911241249438 · Cited by 6
“…for suicide attempts (Oquendo et al., 2021), and the clinical relevance of these changes in SI immediately prior to a suicide attempt (Bryan et al., 2014; Miller & Prinstein, 2019; Rudd, 2006), the time frame covered by measures of SI was reviewed as part of an evaluation of their clinical utility.”
The Suicidal Clock: Temporal Constriction and the Chronological Collapse of Narrative Identity
Gay, M. (2025) · Illness Crisis & Loss · doi:10.1177/10541373251350201 · Cited by 6
How do adolescents consider life and death? A cognition-to-action framework for suicide prevention
Benzekri, A., & Morris‐Perez, P. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424001160 · Cited by 6
Suicid som psykiskt olycksfall: ett systemperspektiv
Beskow, J. (2015) · Suicidologi/Nytt i suicidologi · doi:10.5617/suicidologi.1967 · Cited by 5
Dynamic Changes in a Desire to Escape from Interpersonal Adversity: A Fluid Experimental Assessment of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide
Kyron, M. J., Badcock, A. C., Baker-Young, E., Stritzke, W. G. K., & Page, A. C. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-019-10013-2 · Cited by 7
“Building on this position, the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (ITS; Joiner 2005) suggests that an increase in interpersonal adversity generates significant psychological pain and distress, and as a result increases the risk of attempting suicide.”
BackgroundInfluential
Identifying suicidal subtypes and dynamic indicators of increasing and decreasing suicide risk in active duty military personnel: Study protocol
Brown, L. A., Bryan, C. J., Butner, J., Tabares, J. V., Young‐McCaughan, S., Hale, W. J., Fina, B. A., Foa, E. B., Resick, P. A., Taylor, D. J., et al. (2021) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2021.100752 · Cited by 5
“Consistent with the fluid vulnerability theory of suicide [5,8,58], this study will explore both dynamic and stable properties of the change in suicide risk.”
Method
Psychometric properties of the interpersonal needs questionnaire (INQ-15) in Army soldiers: Implications and future directions
Moscardini, E. H., Robinson, A. D., Trachik, B. J., Ganulin, M. L., LoPresti, M. L., Dretsch, M. N., Calamia, M. R., & Tucker, R. P. (2022) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2021.2006528 · Cited by 5
“To demonstrate, the Suicide Cognitions Scale – Revised (SCS-R; Bryan et al., 2021) is an 18-item questionnaire intended to measure suicide-related beliefs as posited by the Fluid Vulnerability Theory of suicide (Rudd, 2006).”
Method
Retracted: The Three‐Step Theory of Suicide: An Independent Replication and Conceptual Extension
Hagan, C. R., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2019) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12590 · Cited by 5
Retracted
Maladaptive Thinking Styles and Suicide Cognitions: Serial Mediation of Difficulties in Emotion Regulation and Loneliness
Akbulut, Ö. F., Okur, S., & Akat, M. (2025) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-025-10164-4 · Cited by 7
“The fluid vulnerability theory of suicide [57] focuses on Beck’s cognitive theory and cognitive issues during the suicide process.”
The psychological role of dissociation and repetitive negative thinking in the development of suicidal behavior in posttraumatic stress disorder
Анатольевна, С. О., Truevtsev, D. V., & Zhirnova, O. V. (2025) · Neurology Bulletin · doi:10.17816/nb642098 · Cited by 4
The Function of Happiness on Weakening and Strengthening Depressive Effect on Academics’ Suicidal Ideation
Darmayanti, K. K. H., Anggraini, E., Winata, E. Y., Purwasih, I., & Fakhriya, S. D. (2022) · Psychological Research on Urban Society · doi:10.7454/proust.v5i2.125 · Cited by 4
Momentary Fluctuations in Impulsivity Predicts Suicidal Ideation Among Those With Problematic Alcohol Use
Ammerman, B. A., Knorr, A. C., McClure, K. E., O’Brien, C., & Xu, I. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23747 · Cited by 5
Psychological theories of suicidal behaviour
Rudd, M. D., & Pérez-Muñoz, A. (2021) · doi:10.1093/med/9780198834441.003.0021 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Invariance-based causal prediction to identify the direct causes of suicidal behavior
Goddard, A. V., Xiang, Y., & Bryan, C. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1008496 · Cited by 5
“For example, entrapment is central to the integrated motivational-volitional theory of suicide (17), fearlessness about death is central to the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide (18), maladaptive beliefs are central to the fluid vulnerability theory of suicide (8), and depression and suicidal ideation are…”
Background
Psychometric Properties of the Bangla Brief Suicide Cognitions Scale among University Level Students
Arafat, S. M. Y., Hussain, F., Amin, R., Menon, V., Islam, M. K., Redwan, A. S. M., & Khan, M. A. S. (2022) · Mental Illness · doi:10.1155/2022/2327630 · Cited by 5
“This is also consistent with contemporary models of risk conceptualization in suicide, such as the FVT of suicide [13], that conceive suicide risk along two planes: chronic and acute risk.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Idiographic dynamics between suicide ideation and depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress symptoms in persons living with HIV: A pilot study
Zhu, Y., Rodebaugh, T. L., Narine, K., & Brown, L. A. (2022) · Journal for Person-Oriented Research · doi:10.17505/jpor.2022.24856 · Cited by 4
“First, suicide ideation (SI) dramatically fluctuates over time (Kleiman et al., 2017; Rudd, 2006).”
Background
Suicidal Behaviour and Stressful Life Events: The Mediating Role of the Impulsivity-Aggression-Hostility Triad Through Psychological Autopsy
Caro‐Cañizares, I., Brenlla, M. E., Carballo, J. J., Santos, M., Guija, J. A., & Giner, L. (2024) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2023.300 · Cited by 4
“However, the existential and social nature of suicide makes it difficult to reduce it to discrete elements ( Rudd, 2006 ).”
Background
Kırılma Noktası: İkinci Nesil İntihar Kuramları
Bulut, B. P., & Demirbaş, H. (2021) · Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.7816/nesne-09-20-12 · Cited by 4
Cognitive treatment of suicidal adults
Beskow, J., Salkovskis, P. M., & Palm-Beskow, A. (2009) · doi:10.1093/med/9780198570059.003.0056 · Cited by 4
Moderating Effect of Perceived Stress on the Relationship Between Perseverative Coping and Suicide Ideation
Kato, T. (2025) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2025.2597347 · Cited by 3
“…models of suicide, such as interpersonal-psychological theory (Joiner, 2005), integrated motivational-volitional (IMV) models (O’Connor, 2011; O’Connor & Kirtley, 2018), and fluid vulnerability theory (Rudd, 2006), postulate that stress is a key factor in the suicide process (Klonsky et al., 2018).”
Can clinician’s risk assessments distinguish those who disclose suicidal ideation from those who attempt suicide?
Barker, J., Oakes-Rogers, S., Lince, K., Taylor, A., Keddie, R., Bruce, H., Selvarajah, S., Fish, D., Aspen, C., & Leddy, A. (2023) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2023.2192532 · Cited by 3
“Contemporary theory suggests suicidal behavior is best conceptualized as a specific response to environmental stressors that interact with biological and intrapsychic mechanisms and vulnerabilities (Rudd, 2006).”
Background
Suicide warning signs of self-identification in patients with mood disorders: a qualitative analysis based on safety planning
Zhang, H., Zhu, J., Niu, L., Zeng, M., Chen, T., Chen, Y., Hou, X., Tao, H., Ma, Y., Lin, K., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1417817 · Cited by 4
Construction and verification of risk prediction model for suicidal attempts of mood disorder based on machine learning
Deng, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, X., Jiang, Q., Xing, Y., Xu, Y., Zhao, G., Sha, S., Liang, S., & Chen, H. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.03.107 · Cited by 3
Suicide 2 The psychology of suicidal behaviour
O’Connor, R. C., & Nock, M. K. (2014) · Cited by 3
A Factor Analysis of the Suicide Cognitions Scale in Veterans with Military Sexual Trauma-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Wiblin, J. L., Holder, N. D., Holliday, R. P., Jeon‐Slaughter, H., LePage, J. P., & Surís, A. (2021) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1869643 · Cited by 3
“As described in the fluid vulnerability theory (FVT; Rudd, 2006), suicide-specific cognitions have the potential to increase clinician understanding of this population’s risk.”
BackgroundInfluential
Factor Structure of the Suicide Cognitions Scale in a National Sample of Female Veterans
Holliday, R. P., Schneider, A. L., Miller, C. N., Forster, J. E., & Monteith, L. L. (2021) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2021.1892003 · Cited by 3
“The SCS was developed based on Fluid Vulnerability Theory (FVT; Rudd, 2006), which posits that suicidal self-”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Suicide Notes, Attempts, and Attempt Lethality During Episodes of Ideation Among Suicidal Soldiers and Marines
Huppert, T. K., Fruhbauerova, M., Kerbrat, A. H., DeCou, C. R., & Comtois, K. A. (2021) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2021.1988785 · Cited by 3
“Considered within the context of the Fluid Vulnerability Theory of Suicide (Rudd, 2006), which views suicide risk as dynamic and existing on a continuum from baseline risk to acute risk determined by fluctuations and interactions of thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiology over time, this…”
Background
Insomnia and the Interpersonal Theory of suicide among civilians, service members, and veterans
Tubbs, A. S., Killgore, W. D. S., Karp, J. F., Fernandez, F., & Grandner, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.09.043 · Cited by 4
Situational stress and suicide attempt behavior in Army soldiers and veterans: Insights from the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers‐Longitudinal Study
Edwards, E. R., Coolidge, B., Ruiz, D., Epshteyn, G., Krauss, A., Gorman, D., Connelly, B., Redden, C., El‐Meouchy, P., & Geraci, J. C. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12970 · Cited by 3
Modeling Suicidality with Multimodal Impulsivity Characterization in Participants with Mental Health Disorder
Moukaddam, N. J., Lamichhane, B., Salas, R., Goodman, W. K., & Sabharwal, A. (2023) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2023/8552180 · Cited by 3
“of suicide (integrated motivational-volitional model [7], three-step theory [8], and fluid vulnerability theory [9]) face the same conceptual issue in modeling suicidality.”
Background
İNTİHARLA MÜCADELEDE SOSYAL HİZMETİN ÖNEMİ VE TÜRKİYE’DE İNTİHARLARIN ÖNLENMESİNE YÖNELİK KURUMSAL BİR MODEL ÖNERİSİ
Özden, N., & İpek, Z. (2024) · Sosyal Politika Çalışmaları Dergisi · doi:10.21560/spcd.vi.1436475 · Cited by 3
Brief Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy zur Suizidprävention
Forkmann, T., Serebriakova, J., & Teismann, T. (2025) · Die Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/s00278-025-00775-4 · Cited by 3
Rates of Sleep Disorders Based on a Structured Clinical Interview in US Active-Duty Military Personnel with Acute Suicide Risk
Zhu, Y., Pruiksma, K. E., Taylor, D. J., Khazem, L. R., Baker, J. C., Young, J., Bryan, C. J., Wiley, J. F., & Brown, L. A. (2025) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2025.2499136 · Cited by 4
“According to the Fluid Vulnerability Theory of Suicide (Rudd, 2006), the suicide mode has three key components: predispositions, activating events, and acute risk factors.”
Influential
Trends and characteristics of suicidal ideation among university students in Japan
Horita, R., Silvestre, A., Fukao, T., et al. (2025) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2025.2498794 · Cited by 3
“Notably, however, the severity of suicidal ideation does not fully predict future suicidal behavior. fluid vulnerability theory (rudd, 2006) suggests that suicide risk is not static but rather that it fluctuates over time, influenced by both cognitive vulnerability and situational factors (for…”
Psychological theories of suicidal behaviour
Rudd, M. D., Trotter, D. R. M., & Williams, B. (2009) · doi:10.1093/med/9780198570059.003.0025 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
İntihar Bilişleri Ölçeğinin Psikometrik Özelliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması
Guzey, M., & Yiğit, İ. (2017) · Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.7816/nesne-05-11-02 · Cited by 3
“Beck’in ileri sürdüğü intihar yönelimli mod üzerine yaptığı açıklamaları geliştiren Rudd (2006), akıcı yatkınlık kuramını ortaya koymuştur.”
Influential
Psychological Models of Suicide
Barzilay, S., & Lawrence, O. C. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780197582718.003.0002 · Cited by 4
Heterogeneity in momentary affective experiences related to suicidal urges in a non-clinical sample of adult handgun owners and non-owners recruited from the community
Bryan, C. J., Bozzay, M. L., Tabares, J. V., Daruwala, S. E., Butner, J., & Gorka, S. M. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.119 · Cited by 2
Beyond meaning in life: How a perceived futility in searching for meaning in life predicts suicidal ideation
Kyron, M. J., Page, A. C., Chen, W., Delgadillo, J., & Ngo, H. (2025) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2025.2529281 · Cited by 3
“The Interpersonal theory of Suicide (IPTS) in particular focuses on how interpersonal states exacerbate a desire to suicide; however, the current study finds that this association is not uniform, and that factors such as existential nihilism may act to magnify this association (Van Orden et al., 2010).”

Authors: Rudd, M. D.
Affiliations: Baylor University (US)
Corresponding author: Rudd, M. David
ORCID: Rudd, M. David
Venue: Cognition and suicide: Theory, research, and therapy.
Publisher: American Psychological Association
Published: 2006
Pages: 355-368
DOI: 10.1037/11377-016
OpenAlex: W1744999525
Cited by: 463
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 38 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 20.02
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychological Association eBooks (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: suicide risk, cognitive approach, suicide prevention

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Fluid vulnerability theory: a cognitive approach to understanding the process of acute and chronic suicide risk

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