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The influence of mortality and socioeconomic status on risk and delayed rewards: A life history theory approach.
Open accessAbstract
Why do some people take risks and live for the present, whereas others avoid risks and save for the future? The evolutionary framework of life history theory predicts that preferences for risk and delay in gratification should be influenced by mortality and resource scarcity. A series of experiments examined how mortality cues influenced decisions involving risk preference (e.g., $10 for sure vs. 50% chance of $20) and temporal discounting (e.g., $5 now vs. $10 later). The effect of mortality depended critically on whether people grew up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment. For individuals who grew up relatively poor, mortality cues led them to value the present and gamble for big immediate rewards. Conversely, for individuals who grew up relatively wealthy, mortality cues led them to value the future and avoid risky gambles. Overall, mortality cues appear to propel individuals toward diverging life history strategies as a function of childhood socioeconomic status, suggesting important implications for how environmental factors influence economic decisions and risky behaviors.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across three experiments, mortality cues shifted financial risk and delayed-reward preferences in opposite directions depending on childhood socioeconomic status (SES). People from relatively resource-scarce childhoods became more present-oriented and risk-taking after mortality cues, whereas those from relatively resource-plentiful childhoods became more future-oriented and risk-averse.
Key findings
- In Experiment 1, mortality cues interacted with childhood SES on risk taking, \(F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01\); at 1 SD below the childhood-SES mean, mortality increased risk taking, \(t(93) = 2.60, p < .05, \eta^2 = .07\), while at 1 SD above the mean there was a nonsignificant trend toward less risk taking, \(t(93) = 1.10, p = .27, \eta^2 = .01\). Current/expected SES did not significantly interact with prime, \(F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14\).
- In Experiment 2, mortality cues again interacted with childhood SES for risk, \(F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001, \eta^2 = .17\): lower childhood SES participants took more risk after mortality cues, \(t(67) = 3.57, p < .01, \eta^2 = .14\), and higher childhood SES participants took less risk, \(t(67) = 2.84, p < .01, \eta^2 = .10\). For time preference, the interaction was \(F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048, \eta^2 = .046\); lower childhood SES participants preferred the present, \(t(67) = 1.62, p = .06, \eta^2 = .04\), and higher childhood SES participants preferred the future, \(t(67) = 1.71, p = .05, \eta^2 = .04\).
- In Experiment 3, using childhood family income, mortality cues interacted with childhood SES on time preference, \(F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005\); at 1 SD above the mean, mortality increased future valuation, \(t(40) = 2.55, p = .023, \eta^2 = .12\), while at 1 SD below the mean there was a marginally significant increase in valuing the present, \(t(40) = 1.46, p = .08, \eta^2 = .04\).
- Overall, the authors conclude that mortality cues can propel individuals toward diverging life-history strategies as a function of childhood SES, with implications for economic decisions and risky behavior.
Methods
- Three experiments with university students: Experiment 1 had 97 participants (67 male, 30 female); Experiment 2 had 71 participants (36 male, 35 female; mean age = 20.8 years); Experiment 3 had 44 participants (mean age = 20.3 years). Participants were seated at computers and randomly assigned to mortality-prime or control conditions using a fictitious news article.
- Dependent measures involved dichotomous financial choices assessing risk preference and temporal discounting. Childhood SES was measured with subjective items in Experiments 1 and 2 and with recalled household family income in Experiment 3; Experiment 1 also measured current/future SES.
- Analyses used general linear models/ANOVA to test Prime × Childhood SES interactions, followed by simple-effects tests at ±1 SD of childhood SES. Experiment 2 used directed tests allocating .04 of alpha to the predicted direction and .01 to the unpredicted direction.
Limitations
- The paper states that the sample had a relatively limited range of SES, which may have reduced power to detect the interaction and means the low-SES participants were relatively affluent compared with the full global and historical range; effects might be stronger at SES extremes.
- The paper states that future research is needed on the psychological and physiological mechanisms, critical periods in childhood, distinctions between extrinsic and intrinsic mortality, and whether findings generalize to other types of risk and more diverse populations.
- Evident from the text: all samples were university students, the financial choices were hypothetical lab measures rather than actual financial behavior, Experiment 3 had a small sample (\(N = 44\)), and several simple effects were marginal (\(p = .06\) or \(p = .08\)).
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35 Not checked yet · 27 Own result · 19 Own interpretation · 9 Own method · 7 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For individuals who grew up relatively poor, mortality cues led them to value the present and gamble for big immediate rewards.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A main effect of participant sex emerged, whereby women took less risk than men (p = .029).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“An analysis of potential interactions did not reveal a three-way interaction with participant sex, prime, and either type of SES or a two-way interaction with participant sex and prime or with participant sex and either type of SES (ps > .20).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“Conversely, for individuals who grew up relatively wealthy, mortality cues led them to value the future and avoid risky gambles.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
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In the paper
“The effect of mortality depended critically on whether people grew up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, participants from wealthier backgrounds—who were 1 SD above the childhood SES mean—took significantly less risk when primed with mortality, t(67) = 2.84, p < .01, η2 = .10.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
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In the paper
“Conversely, those from wealthier backgrounds—who were 1 SD above the childhood SES mean—showed a preference for the future, choosing more larger, delayed rewards when primed with mortality, t(67) = 1.71, p = .05, η2 = .04.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
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In the paper
“For time preference, prime also interacted with childhood SES, F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048, η2 = .046”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
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In the paper
“Consistent with the findings from the second experiment, there was an interaction between prime and childhood family income, F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005 (see Figure 4).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
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In the paper
“For example, we found in the current studies and in previous work (Griskevicius et al., 2010) that childhood SES had consistently stronger moderating effects than did current SES.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
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In the paper
“At 1 SD below the mean of childhood SES, there was greater risk taking in the mortality condition relative to the control condition, t(93) = 2.60, p < .05, η2 = .07.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“Instead, at 1 SD above the mean of childhood SES, there was a nonsignificant trend in the opposite direction, such that there was slightly less risk taking in the mortality condition than in the control condition, t(93) = 1.10, p = .27, η2 = .01.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“First, mortality cues had a markedly different effect on risk preferences and on temporal discounting depending on whether people reported growing up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
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In the paper
“Indeed, for childhood SES, the predicted interaction with prime was significant, F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“When mortality threat was not salient, people from wealthier backgrounds preferred slightly more risk than did those from poorer backgrounds (for a replication of this wealth–risk preference effect in a German sample, see Dohmen, Falk, Huffman, & Sunde, 2010).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dohmen, Falk, Huffman, & Sunde, 2010
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As predicted, those from poorer backgrounds—who were –1 SD below the childhood SES mean—preferred the present, choosing more smaller, immediate rewards when primed with mortality, t(67) = 1.62, p = .06, η2 = .04.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
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In the paper
“This moderating effect of childhood SES was stable across subjective attitudes of childhood resource availability (Studies 1 and 2) and recall of objective household income (Study 3).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
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In the paper
“When we examined current/expected SES, this variable did not interact significantly with prime, F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“In the control condition, childhood SES was not significantly related to risk taking (β = .22, p = .15, rsp2=.02).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
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In the paper
“Prime interacted with childhood SES, F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001, η2 = .17”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those from poorer backgrounds—who were –1 SD below the childhood SES mean—took significantly greater risk when primed with cues of mortality, t(67) = 3.57, p < .01, η2 = .14.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
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In the paper
“In particular, despite the moderate correlation between childhood and current SES, the effects of mortality cues were contingent on people's childhood SES more than people's current SES.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
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In the paper
“People who grew up feeling that they had relatively few resources responded to mortality cues by preferring risky financial decisions to lower yield but safe decisions.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For individuals with childhood SES –1 below the mean, the mortality prime led to a marginally significant increase in valuing the present, t(40) = 1.46, p = .08, η2 = .04.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For individuals with childhood SES 1 SD above the mean, the mortality prime led to increased valuation of the future, t(40) = 2.55, p = .023, η2 = .12.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
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In the paper
“The same pattern emerged in a study examining the relationship between violent crime and age of reproduction across 373 counties in the United States that represent over 146 million people (Griskevicius et al., 2010). Higher violent crime rates (but not property crime rates) were associated with earlier ages of reproduction, even when controlling for socioeconomic status (SES).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Taken together, these findings suggest that instead of having a set life history strategy at birth, people might monitor their environment to calibrate how and when they invest in somatic and reproductive efforts.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
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In the paper
“Life history theory highlights that strategies develop in response to ecological factors. These ecological factors include harshness (e.g., the age-specific rates of mortality–morbidity), unpredictability (e.g., the consistency of harshness from one period to another), and resource scarcity (e.g., the availability of energetic resources and level of competition for these resources; Ellis et al., 2”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Environmental Contingency in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ellis et al., 2009
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In the paper
“These converging findings from multiple fields suggest that people may nonconsciously calibrate or sensitize their life history strategies during a sensitive window in childhood, much like the early “critical period” for language acquisition (Belsky, 2007; Belsky et al., 1991, 2010; Boyce & Ellis, 2005).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Belsky, 2007
- Not checked yetcites Belsky et al., 1991, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Boyce & Ellis, 2005
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In the paper
“Considerations of life history theory suggest that some proportion of these individual differences may develop in response to environmental cues of mortality (Chisholm, 1993, 1996; Ellis et al., 2009; Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005; Quinlan, 2007; Simpson & Belsky, 2008; Worthman & Kuzara, 2005).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chisholm, 1993, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Ellis et al., 2009
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Three different experiments revealed that mortality cues had a markedly different effect on reproductive timing, unlike the straightforward associations found in correlational studies, depending on a person's childhood environment.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, this emerging research showed that mortality threats elicited psychologies consistent with different life history strategies, even when those strategies were not detectable in neutral control conditions.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
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In the paper
“In fact, the effect of mortality cues was not related to people's current or expected future SES across these studies.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Life history theory highlights that all organisms face a fundamental trade-off between investing into somatic effort versus reproductive effort.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > The Trade-Off Between Current Versus Future Reproduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Roff, 2002
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Conversely, for individuals who grew up in higher SES environments, mortality cues motivated them to want to delay reproduction, consistent with shifting to a slower strategy.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent medical findings are also consistent with this childhood-SES effect, whereby the effects of stress on adult health have been shown to vary as a function of an individual's childhood SES but not the individual's adult SES (e.g., Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, 2004; Galobardes, Lynch, & Davey Smith, 2004).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Galobardes, Lynch, & Davey Smith, 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For individuals who perceived themselves to have had lower childhood SES, mortality cues led them to want to have their first child sooner.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Multiple studies show that mortality cues have a particularly strong relationship with reproductive timing.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008
- Not checked yetcites Wilson & Daly, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The evolutionary framework of life history theory predicts that preferences for risk and delay in gratification should be influenced by mortality and resource scarcity.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Belsky et al., 1991
- Not checked yetcites Ellis et al., 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These life courses fall on a continuum from a “slower” course related to slower pace of reproduction and prioritizing offspring quality to a “faster” course related to a faster pace of reproduction and prioritizing offspring quantity (Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991; Bielby et al., 2007; Ellis, Figueredo, Brumbach, & Schlomer, 2009; Griskevicius, Delton, Robertson, & Tybur, 2010).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991
- Not checked yetcites Bielby et al., 2007
- Not checked yetcites Ellis, Figueredo, Brumbach, & Schlomer, 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, mortality cues appear to propel individuals toward diverging life history strategies as a function of childhood socioeconomic status, suggesting important implications for how environmental factors influence economic decisions and risky behaviors.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In the 10 neighborhoods with the highest life expectancy, the median age of mothers giving birth was 27.3 years, whereas in the 10 neighborhoods with lowest life expectancy it was 22.6 years (Wilson & Daly, 1997).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilson & Daly, 1997
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, the expected payoff from a safe but low-yield decision is lower for an individual following a fast strategy than for one following a slow strategy, because the individual following a fast strategy acts under assumptions of limited longevity.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Strategies and Risk
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Species tend to differ in their life history strategies, but there is substantial variability in strategies within a given species (Daan & Tinbergen, 1997; Tinbergen & Both, 1999).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Daan & Tinbergen, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Tinbergen & Both, 1999
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“When we consider how risk preferences changed as a function of the combination of childhood SES and mortality threat, the specific findings in our studies are consistent with recent models of state-dependent risk (Nettle, 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although we suspect that genetic factors play a role in life history calibration, our findings suggest that genes alone do not provide a complete explanation.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is because mortality threat that is intrinsic can be decreased by “investing” in larger body size, better immune system functioning, and/or knowledge and skills that could decrease the threat.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As a person's state deteriorates, such as when threat becomes more pervasive, the maximum risk-iness of behavior declines until the person become risk averse.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, the current research shows that different life history strategies—and the specific preferences for risk and delayed rewards associated with different strategies—can shift as a function of specific cues in a person's adult environment.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
In the paper
“The fact that we have consistently found that perceived childhood SES moderates the effect of mortality cues in this research and in previous work (Griskevicius et al., 2010) suggests that this effect is quite robust in this population and that cues related to relative childhood SES are important in sensitizing life history strategies.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The fact that we have consistently found that perceived childhood SES moderates the effect of mortality cues in this research and in previous work (Griskevicius et al., 2010) suggests that this effect is quite robust in this population and that cues related to relative childhood SES are important in sensitizing life history strategies.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, childhood experience is likely to play a role in sensitizing life history strategies.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
In the paper
“Lower SES childhood environments are likely to have many more stressors linked to unpredictability and harshness, such as multiple job and residence changes, fluctuating employment status and resource availability, parental stress over resources, and changing household membership (e.g., the coming and going of parents, stepparents, and/or relatives; see Belsky, 2007).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Belsky, 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is consistent with adopting a faster life history strategy.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This childhood-SES contingency effect replicates previous experimental research examining the influence of mortality cues on reproductive timing (Griskevicius et al., 2010).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although it is not possible to experimentally manipulate the early environments of humans to test how early experiences shape life history strategies, experimental research on other animals that used cross-fostering methodologies has shown that early experience can affect brain development and later behavior independent of genetic factors (Francis, Diorio, Liu, & Meaney, 1999; Maestripieri, 2005).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Francis, Diorio, Liu, & Meaney, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Maestripieri, 2005
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, mortality threat that is extrinsic cannot be reduced through effort, because all individuals in a population are at similar level of risk regardless of what actions are taken.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such harsh and unpredictable features should typically be less frequent in the environments of individuals with higher SES childhoods.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern is consistent with adopting a slower life history strategy in which multiple, safe long-term investments (e.g., somatic investment in embodied capital) are favored.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This means that individuals should enact different life history strategies in response to the same mortality cues.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This specific pattern is consistent with a slow life history strategy, which entails not gambling away current resources but instead investing and waiting for potentially larger payoffs in the future.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One limitation of the current research is that we sampled from a population with a relatively limited range of SES.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that different types of mortality are linked to different life history strategies, we suggest that the same mortality cues can be interpreted as either extrinsic or intrinsic.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Early exposure to environmental factors that contain unpredictability and harshness may “sensitize” life history parameters and establish different developmental trajectories, shunting individuals down a slow or a fast pathway (e.g., Caretta, Caretta, & Cavaggioni, 1995).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Caretta, Caretta, & Cavaggioni, 1995
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We suggest that these kinds of manipulations are likely to have different effects on risk as a function of other moderating factors, such as a person's childhood environment or the type of risk the person is incurring (e.g., temporal risk).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 12
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also important to note that the pattern for risk preferences in the control conditions was often the reverse (albeit not significantly so) of that in the mortality conditions.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For time preference, mortality cues also had a different effect as a function of childhood SES: Mortality cues led people with higher SES childhoods to value the future and led those with lower SES childhoods to value the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, individuals who grew up with relatively more resources responded to mortality cues by preferring lower risk but lower yield rewards (although a test of this simple effect did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance in this study).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For people who grew up in relatively resource-plentiful environments, mortality cues led them to take less risk and value the future more.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, mortality cues led people who grew up in relatively resource-scarce environments to prefer more risk and value the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For risk, findings replicated the pattern found in the first study: Mortality cues led people who grew up in resource-plentiful environments to take fewer risks and led those who grew up in resource-scarce environments to take more risk.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study examining the association between life expectancy at birth (an indicator of mortality) and age at first birth in 170 nations, variation in life expectancy accounted for 74% of the variation in age at first birth, with shorter life expectancy predicting earlier age at first birth (Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus, we propose that slow and fast life history strategies are linked to specific preferences for risk: Whereas a slower strategy should be associated with preference for less risk, a faster strategy should be associated with preference for more risk.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Strategies and Risk
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites E. Hill, Ross, & Low, 1997
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the psychology and behavior associated with different life history strategies might be dormant in benign environments but may be especially likely to emerge in conditions that suggest environmental unpredictability and harshness.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although people generally having a slow life history strategy characterized by a long developmental period, heavy investment in a few offspring, and a long expected life span (Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000), some individuals reach sexual maturity and become sexually active earlier, whereas others delay reproduction and invest more in embodied capital (Ellis, 2004).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000
- Not checked yetcites Ellis, 2004
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, members of species that typically live under conditions of high environmental unpredictability and harshness (e.g., seasonal hurricane threat that may kill large proportions of the population) do not gain much from high investment in somatic effort, as that investment could be wiped out by forces outside that organism's control. Instead, such species evolve a relatively fast strategy”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Environmental Contingency in Life History Strategies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the factors were moderately correlated (r = .41), they were nevertheless empirically distinct.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pilot testing revealed that the two articles elicited the same amount of general arousal, but the mortality prime led participants to view the world as more uncertain and more unsafe (for additional details, see Griskevicius et al., 2010).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, research shows that responses to stress are moderated by a person's genotype (Caspi et al., 2003).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Caspi et al., 2003
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pattern of results in Experiment 3—with additional measures of time preference and a different measure of childhood SES—converged with the results found in Experiment 2: Individuals adopting a slower life history strategy responded to cues of mortality by valuing the future, whereas individuals adopting a faster strategy responded by valuing the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Directed tests allocate .04 of a total alpha level of .05 to the predicted direction of a test statistic and .01 to the unpredicted direction (see, e.g., Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, & Simpson, 2007).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Method
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Braver, 1975
- Not checked yetcites Rice & Gaines, 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“This model suggests that individuals in a good state are prepared to take relatively large risks, in line with what we found for people with higher SES childhood when there was no immediate threat.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we suggest that individuals who grew up in higher SES environments should typically perceive cues to danger as indicating intrinsic mortality, whereas those who grew up in lower SES environments should perceive the same danger cues as indicative of extrinsic mortality.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of the two questions was randomized.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A suspicion probe during survey development showed that participants believed this cover story, and they made no connections between the financial questions and news articles.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we created a composite for childhood SES (α = .87) and a composite for current SES (α = .70), analyzing each one separately.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, when a person's state becomes dire, such as a low-SES childhood combined with prevalent mortality threat, there is an abrupt shift toward being totally risk prone (Nettle, 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Life history theory predicts that a preference for the future should be associated with a slower life history strategy; organisms with slow life histories “expect” that they will be alive in the future and thus can benefit by waiting for a larger but delayed reward. Conversely, a preference for the present should be associated with a faster strategy”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan et al., 2000
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of whether participants first answered the risk items or the time items was randomized.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A principal-axis factor analysis of the six SES items yielded two factors with eigenvalues above 1.0 (3.34 and 1.07).”
- Also stated in: § Method · plain
“The first rotated factor consisted of the three childhood SES items, and it accounted for 47% of item variance. The second rotated factor consisted of the three current SES items, and it accounted for 27% of item variance.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Method · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This possible mechanism suggests that psychologies associated with different life history strategies might lay “dormant” in benign ecological conditions but might become enacted in critical conditions suggesting ecological harshness and unpredictability.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This differential sensitization in childhood ought to affect how individuals respond to certain ecological variables later in life.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
In the paper
“Whereas the prevalence of extrinsic mortality is linked to faster life history strategies, the prevalence of intrinsic mortality is linked to the adoption of slower strategies (Ellis et al., 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ellis et al., 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This specific pattern is consistent with a fast life history strategy, which entails taking risks for big immediate payoffs and preferring to get any kind of certain reward now rather than a potentially larger reward later.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, all of the items showed highly similar patterns, and thus they were combined into a time preference index (α = .90).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This work substantially extends previous work by demonstrating that life history strategies are not only important for directing reproductive decisions (e.g., when to reproduce) but are also important for behaviors such as financial decision making and desire for immediate versus delayed rewards.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, this restriction may have actually reduced our power to detect a significant interaction between childhood SES and mortality cues, because our low-SES participants developed in conditions that were relatively affluent compared to the full range of economic conditions worldwide and historically.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
“Throughout this paper, we have assumed that life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Our findings also dovetail with recent evidence that scarcity is cognitively taxing (28)(29)(30) and thus may undermine an individual's ability to regulate unintended prejudices.”
From Economic scarcity alters the perception of race (2014) · cites this paper as [28]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(40) = 2.55, p = .023”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
Reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .015
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
Reported p = .14 · recomputed p = .133
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 93) = 2.3reported p = .14 · recomputed p = .133
“F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14”
- Doesn’t add upt(40) = 2.55reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .015
“t(40) = 2.55, p = .023”
- Not confirmedF(1, 67) = 3.2reported p = .048 · recomputed p = .078
“F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048”
- ConsistentF(1, 93) = 6.86reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01”
- Consistentt(93) = 2.6reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .011
“t(93) = 2.60, p < .05”
- Consistentt(93) = 1.1reported p = .27 · recomputed p = .274
“t(93) = 1.10, p = .27”
- ConsistentF(1, 67) = 13.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001”
- Consistentt(67) = 3.57reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001
“t(67) = 3.57, p < .01”
- Consistentt(67) = 2.84reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006
“t(67) = 2.84, p < .01”
- Consistentt(67) = 1.62reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .110
“t(67) = 1.62, p = .06”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- Consistentt(67) = 1.71reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .092
“t(67) = 1.71, p = .05”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- ConsistentF(1, 40) = 7.55reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .009
“F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- Consistentt(40) = 1.46reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .152
“t(40) = 1.46, p = .08”
The paper states a one-tailed test
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-3352 · Cited by 36,647
The Evolution of Life-histories
Benton, T. G., & Stearne, S. C. (1993) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.2307/5403 · Cited by 12,192
Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., McClay, J., Mill, J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A., et al. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1083968 · Cited by 8,120
Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-1841 · Cited by 5,386
Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence.
Williams, G. C. (1957) · Evolution · doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1957.tb02911.x · Cited by 4,279 · cited 1×
“Because natural selection favors allocation strategies that optimize resource use over the life course (Schaffer, 1983; Williams, 1957), evolutionary biologists and behavioral ecologists developed life history theory to help explain how and why organisms, including humans, allocate resources to…”
Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach
Adams, J. M., Krebs, J. R., & Davies, N. B. (1992) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.2307/5530 · Cited by 3,919
Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications
(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-4135 · Cited by 3,819
The interaction of TIGIT with PVR and PVRL2 inhibits human NK cell cytotoxicity
Stanietsky, N., Simic, H., Arapovic, J., Toporik, A., Levy, O., Novik, A., Levine, Z., Beiman, M., Dassa, L., Achdout, H., et al. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0903474106 · Cited by 3,524
The evolution of life histories: theory and analysis
(1993) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.30-4983 · Cited by 3,417
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. D., & Draper, P. (1991) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01558.x · Cited by 2,601 · cited 2×
“…biology and behavioral ecology, and it is becoming increasingly useful in explaining human behavior (see, e.g., Belsky, Houts, & Fearon, 2010; Belsky et al., 1991; Chisholm, 1993; Davis & Werre, 2008; Del Giudice, 2009; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989; Ellis, 2004; Ellis et al., 2009; Figueredo et…”
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Charnov EL Life history invariants 1993 Oxford University Press Oxford, England
- Horn HS Rubenstein DI Krebs JR Davies NB Behavioral adaptations and life history. Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach 1984 279 300 Blackwell Oxford, England 2nd ed.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Parker, K. J. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0024768 · Cited by 1,785
“Griskevicius et al. (2011); McLoyd et al. (1994); Sweitzer et al. (2008) - Adults from low-SES families are more likely to smoke, drink to excess, have poor diets and inactive lifestyles, and be obese.”
BackgroundThe evolutionary basis of risky adolescent behavior: Implications for science, policy, and practice.
Ellis, B. J., Del Giudice, M., Dishion, T. J., Figueredo, A. J., Gray, P., Griskevicius, V., Hawley, P. H., Jacobs, W. J., James, J., Volk, A. A., et al. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026220 · Cited by 745
Self-citationGriskevicius, V., Ackerman, J. M., Cantú, S. M., Delton, A. W., Robertson, T. E., Simpson, J. A., Thompson, M. E., & Tybur, J. M. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612451471 · Cited by 594
Self-citationSimpson, J. A., Griskevicius, V., Kuo, S. I., Sung, S., & Collins, W. A. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027293 · Cited by 493
Self-citationCognitive systems for revenge and forgiveness
McCullough, M. E., Kurzban, R., & Tabak, B. A. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11002160 · Cited by 511
Metadata
- Authors
- Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Delton, A. W., & Robertson, T. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of New Mexico (US)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Griskevicius, Vladas
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1015-1026
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- PMC
- PMC3298774
- OpenAlex
- W2172137497
- Semantic Scholar
- 926b6e5ff6f663ec9ac18e79730426d0a165d7ac
- Cited by
- 790
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 62 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 15.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0843764)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- risk preferences, delay discounting, life history theory, socioeconomic status, child poverty, resource constraints, risky decision making, evolutionary psychology
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Arousal, Attitude to Death, Child, Cues, Decision Making, Female, Gambling, Humans, Individuality, Internal-External Control, Life Change Events, Life Expectancy, Male, Motivation, Personality Development, Poverty, Sex Factors, Social Class, Social Environment, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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