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The influence of mortality and socioeconomic status on risk and delayed rewards: A life history theory approach.
Open accessAbstract
Why do some people take risks and live for the present, whereas others avoid risks and save for the future? The evolutionary framework of life history theory predicts that preferences for risk and delay in gratification should be influenced by mortality and resource scarcity. A series of experiments examined how mortality cues influenced decisions involving risk preference (e.g., $10 for sure vs. 50% chance of $20) and temporal discounting (e.g., $5 now vs. $10 later). The effect of mortality depended critically on whether people grew up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment. For individuals who grew up relatively poor, mortality cues led them to value the present and gamble for big immediate rewards. Conversely, for individuals who grew up relatively wealthy, mortality cues led them to value the future and avoid risky gambles. Overall, mortality cues appear to propel individuals toward diverging life history strategies as a function of childhood socioeconomic status, suggesting important implications for how environmental factors influence economic decisions and risky behaviors.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across three experiments, mortality cues shifted financial risk and delayed-reward preferences in opposite directions depending on childhood socioeconomic status (SES). People from relatively resource-scarce childhoods became more present-oriented and risk-taking after mortality cues, whereas those from relatively resource-plentiful childhoods became more future-oriented and risk-averse.
Key findings
- In Experiment 1, mortality cues interacted with childhood SES on risk taking, \(F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01\); at 1 SD below the childhood-SES mean, mortality increased risk taking, \(t(93) = 2.60, p < .05, \eta^2 = .07\), while at 1 SD above the mean there was a nonsignificant trend toward less risk taking, \(t(93) = 1.10, p = .27, \eta^2 = .01\). Current/expected SES did not significantly interact with prime, \(F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14\).
- In Experiment 2, mortality cues again interacted with childhood SES for risk, \(F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001, \eta^2 = .17\): lower childhood SES participants took more risk after mortality cues, \(t(67) = 3.57, p < .01, \eta^2 = .14\), and higher childhood SES participants took less risk, \(t(67) = 2.84, p < .01, \eta^2 = .10\). For time preference, the interaction was \(F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048, \eta^2 = .046\); lower childhood SES participants preferred the present, \(t(67) = 1.62, p = .06, \eta^2 = .04\), and higher childhood SES participants preferred the future, \(t(67) = 1.71, p = .05, \eta^2 = .04\).
- In Experiment 3, using childhood family income, mortality cues interacted with childhood SES on time preference, \(F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005\); at 1 SD above the mean, mortality increased future valuation, \(t(40) = 2.55, p = .023, \eta^2 = .12\), while at 1 SD below the mean there was a marginally significant increase in valuing the present, \(t(40) = 1.46, p = .08, \eta^2 = .04\).
- Overall, the authors conclude that mortality cues can propel individuals toward diverging life-history strategies as a function of childhood SES, with implications for economic decisions and risky behavior.
Methods
- Three experiments with university students: Experiment 1 had 97 participants (67 male, 30 female); Experiment 2 had 71 participants (36 male, 35 female; mean age = 20.8 years); Experiment 3 had 44 participants (mean age = 20.3 years). Participants were seated at computers and randomly assigned to mortality-prime or control conditions using a fictitious news article.
- Dependent measures involved dichotomous financial choices assessing risk preference and temporal discounting. Childhood SES was measured with subjective items in Experiments 1 and 2 and with recalled household family income in Experiment 3; Experiment 1 also measured current/future SES.
- Analyses used general linear models/ANOVA to test Prime × Childhood SES interactions, followed by simple-effects tests at ±1 SD of childhood SES. Experiment 2 used directed tests allocating .04 of alpha to the predicted direction and .01 to the unpredicted direction.
Limitations
- The paper states that the sample had a relatively limited range of SES, which may have reduced power to detect the interaction and means the low-SES participants were relatively affluent compared with the full global and historical range; effects might be stronger at SES extremes.
- The paper states that future research is needed on the psychological and physiological mechanisms, critical periods in childhood, distinctions between extrinsic and intrinsic mortality, and whether findings generalize to other types of risk and more diverse populations.
- Evident from the text: all samples were university students, the financial choices were hypothetical lab measures rather than actual financial behavior, Experiment 3 had a small sample (\(N = 44\)), and several simple effects were marginal (\(p = .06\) or \(p = .08\)).
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35 Not checked yet · 27 Own result · 19 Own interpretation · 9 Own method · 7 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For individuals who grew up relatively poor, mortality cues led them to value the present and gamble for big immediate rewards.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A main effect of participant sex emerged, whereby women took less risk than men (p = .029).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An analysis of potential interactions did not reveal a three-way interaction with participant sex, prime, and either type of SES or a two-way interaction with participant sex and prime or with participant sex and either type of SES (ps > .20).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, for individuals who grew up relatively wealthy, mortality cues led them to value the future and avoid risky gambles.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect of mortality depended critically on whether people grew up in a relatively resource-scarce or resource-plentiful environment.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, participants from wealthier backgrounds—who were 1 SD above the childhood SES mean—took significantly less risk when primed with mortality, t(67) = 2.84, p < .01, η2 = .10.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, those from wealthier backgrounds—who were 1 SD above the childhood SES mean—showed a preference for the future, choosing more larger, delayed rewards when primed with mortality, t(67) = 1.71, p = .05, η2 = .04.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For time preference, prime also interacted with childhood SES, F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048, η2 = .046”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the findings from the second experiment, there was an interaction between prime and childhood family income, F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005 (see Figure 4).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, we found in the current studies and in previous work (Griskevicius et al., 2010) that childhood SES had consistently stronger moderating effects than did current SES.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 12
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also important to note that the pattern for risk preferences in the control conditions was often the reverse (albeit not significantly so) of that in the mortality conditions.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For time preference, mortality cues also had a different effect as a function of childhood SES: Mortality cues led people with higher SES childhoods to value the future and led those with lower SES childhoods to value the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, individuals who grew up with relatively more resources responded to mortality cues by preferring lower risk but lower yield rewards (although a test of this simple effect did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance in this study).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For people who grew up in relatively resource-plentiful environments, mortality cues led them to take less risk and value the future more.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, mortality cues led people who grew up in relatively resource-scarce environments to prefer more risk and value the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For risk, findings replicated the pattern found in the first study: Mortality cues led people who grew up in resource-plentiful environments to take fewer risks and led those who grew up in resource-scarce environments to take more risk.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a study examining the association between life expectancy at birth (an indicator of mortality) and age at first birth in 170 nations, variation in life expectancy accounted for 74% of the variation in age at first birth, with shorter life expectancy predicting earlier age at first birth (Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Low, Hazel, Parker, & Welch, 2008
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus, we propose that slow and fast life history strategies are linked to specific preferences for risk: Whereas a slower strategy should be associated with preference for less risk, a faster strategy should be associated with preference for more risk.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Strategies and Risk
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites E. Hill, Ross, & Low, 1997
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the psychology and behavior associated with different life history strategies might be dormant in benign environments but may be especially likely to emerge in conditions that suggest environmental unpredictability and harshness.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Influences of Childhood and Adult Environments
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although people generally having a slow life history strategy characterized by a long developmental period, heavy investment in a few offspring, and a long expected life span (Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000), some individuals reach sexual maturity and become sexually active earlier, whereas others delay reproduction and invest more in embodied capital (Ellis, 2004).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Individual Differences in Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan, Hill, Lancaster, & Hurtado, 2000
- Not checked yetcites Ellis, 2004
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, members of species that typically live under conditions of high environmental unpredictability and harshness (e.g., seasonal hurricane threat that may kill large proportions of the population) do not gain much from high investment in somatic effort, as that investment could be wiped out by forces outside that organism's control. Instead, such species evolve a relatively fast strategy”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Life History Theory > Environmental Contingency in Life History Strategies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the factors were moderately correlated (r = .41), they were nevertheless empirically distinct.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pilot testing revealed that the two articles elicited the same amount of general arousal, but the mortality prime led participants to view the world as more uncertain and more unsafe (for additional details, see Griskevicius et al., 2010).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griskevicius et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, research shows that responses to stress are moderated by a person's genotype (Caspi et al., 2003).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Genetics and Life History Strategies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Caspi et al., 2003
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pattern of results in Experiment 3—with additional measures of time preference and a different measure of childhood SES—converged with the results found in Experiment 2: Individuals adopting a slower life history strategy responded to cues of mortality by valuing the future, whereas individuals adopting a faster strategy responded by valuing the present.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Directed tests allocate .04 of a total alpha level of .05 to the predicted direction of a test statistic and .01 to the unpredicted direction (see, e.g., Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, & Simpson, 2007).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Method
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Braver, 1975
- Not checked yetcites Rice & Gaines, 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“This model suggests that individuals in a good state are prepared to take relatively large risks, in line with what we found for people with higher SES childhood when there was no immediate threat.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we suggest that individuals who grew up in higher SES environments should typically perceive cues to danger as indicating intrinsic mortality, whereas those who grew up in lower SES environments should perceive the same danger cues as indicative of extrinsic mortality.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of the two questions was randomized.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A suspicion probe during survey development showed that participants believed this cover story, and they made no connections between the financial questions and news articles.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, we created a composite for childhood SES (α = .87) and a composite for current SES (α = .70), analyzing each one separately.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, when a person's state becomes dire, such as a low-SES childhood combined with prevalent mortality threat, there is an abrupt shift toward being totally risk prone (Nettle, 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nettle, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Life history theory predicts that a preference for the future should be associated with a slower life history strategy; organisms with slow life histories “expect” that they will be alive in the future and thus can benefit by waiting for a larger but delayed reward. Conversely, a preference for the present should be associated with a faster strategy”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan et al., 2000
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order of whether participants first answered the risk items or the time items was randomized.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 2: Risk Preferences and Temporal Discounting > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A principal-axis factor analysis of the six SES items yielded two factors with eigenvalues above 1.0 (3.34 and 1.07).”
- Also stated in: § Method · plain
“The first rotated factor consisted of the three childhood SES items, and it accounted for 47% of item variance. The second rotated factor consisted of the three current SES items, and it accounted for 27% of item variance.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Method · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This possible mechanism suggests that psychologies associated with different life history strategies might lay “dormant” in benign ecological conditions but might become enacted in critical conditions suggesting ecological harshness and unpredictability.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This differential sensitization in childhood ought to affect how individuals respond to certain ecological variables later in life.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
In the paper
“Whereas the prevalence of extrinsic mortality is linked to faster life history strategies, the prevalence of intrinsic mortality is linked to the adoption of slower strategies (Ellis et al., 2009).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Human Life History Strategies and Psychological Mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ellis et al., 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This specific pattern is consistent with a fast life history strategy, which entails taking risks for big immediate payoffs and preferring to get any kind of certain reward now rather than a potentially larger reward later.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, all of the items showed highly similar patterns, and thus they were combined into a time preference index (α = .90).”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Method
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This work substantially extends previous work by demonstrating that life history strategies are not only important for directing reproductive decisions (e.g., when to reproduce) but are also important for behaviors such as financial decision making and desire for immediate versus delayed rewards.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, this restriction may have actually reduced our power to detect a significant interaction between childhood SES and mortality cues, because our low-SES participants developed in conditions that were relatively affluent compared to the full range of economic conditions worldwide and historically.”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > General Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.
“Throughout this paper, we have assumed that life history strategy is sensitized by events experienced during childhood.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Our findings also dovetail with recent evidence that scarcity is cognitively taxing (28)(29)(30) and thus may undermine an individual's ability to regulate unintended prejudices.”
From Economic scarcity alters the perception of race (2014) · cites this paper as [28]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(40) = 2.55, p = .023”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 3: Mortality, Gratification Delay, and Childhood Family Income > Results and Discussion
Reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .015
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14”
§ The Influence of Mortality and Socioeconomic Status on Risk and Delayed Rewards: A Life History Theory Approach > Experiment 1: Mortality, SES, and Risk > Results
Reported p = .14 · recomputed p = .133
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 93) = 2.3reported p = .14 · recomputed p = .133
“F(1, 93) = 2.30, p = .14”
- Doesn’t add upt(40) = 2.55reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .015
“t(40) = 2.55, p = .023”
- Not confirmedF(1, 67) = 3.2reported p = .048 · recomputed p = .078
“F(1, 67) = 3.2, p = .048”
- ConsistentF(1, 93) = 6.86reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“F(1, 93) = 6.86, p = .01”
- Consistentt(93) = 2.6reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .011
“t(93) = 2.60, p < .05”
- Consistentt(93) = 1.1reported p = .27 · recomputed p = .274
“t(93) = 1.10, p = .27”
- ConsistentF(1, 67) = 13.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 67) = 13.86, p < .001”
- Consistentt(67) = 3.57reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001
“t(67) = 3.57, p < .01”
- Consistentt(67) = 2.84reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006
“t(67) = 2.84, p < .01”
- Consistentt(67) = 1.62reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .110
“t(67) = 1.62, p = .06”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- Consistentt(67) = 1.71reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .092
“t(67) = 1.71, p = .05”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- ConsistentF(1, 40) = 7.55reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .009
“F(1, 40) = 7.55, p = .005”
The paper states a one-tailed test
- Consistentt(40) = 1.46reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .152
“t(40) = 1.46, p = .08”
The paper states a one-tailed test
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Parker, K. J. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0024768 · Cited by 1,785
“Griskevicius et al. (2011); McLoyd et al. (1994); Sweitzer et al. (2008) - Adults from low-SES families are more likely to smoke, drink to excess, have poor diets and inactive lifestyles, and be obese.”
BackgroundThe evolutionary basis of risky adolescent behavior: Implications for science, policy, and practice.
Ellis, B. J., Del Giudice, M., Dishion, T. J., Figueredo, A. J., Gray, P., Griskevicius, V., Hawley, P. H., Jacobs, W. J., James, J., Volk, A. A., et al. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026220 · Cited by 745
Self-citationGriskevicius, V., Ackerman, J. M., Cantú, S. M., Delton, A. W., Robertson, T. E., Simpson, J. A., Thompson, M. E., & Tybur, J. M. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612451471 · Cited by 594
Self-citationSimpson, J. A., Griskevicius, V., Kuo, S. I., Sung, S., & Collins, W. A. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027293 · Cited by 493
Self-citationCognitive systems for revenge and forgiveness
McCullough, M. E., Kurzban, R., & Tabak, B. A. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11002160 · Cited by 511
Beyond Risk and Protective Factors: An Adaptation-Based Approach to Resilience
Ellis, B. J., Bianchi, J., Griskevicius, V., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617693054 · Cited by 504
“Furthermore, a large corpus of research has shown that even the limited stress manipulations employed by psychologists can have substantial effects on human cognition and behavior (e.g., Griskevicius et al., 2011; Hill, Rodeheffer, DelPriore, & Butterfield, 2013; Mittal et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFundamental motives: How evolutionary needs influence consumer behavior
Griskevicius, V., & Kenrick, D. T. (2013) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2013.03.003 · Cited by 479
“Keywords: Evolutionary psychology; Motivation; Decision making; Consumer behavior”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe behavioural constellation of deprivation: Causes and consequences
Pepper, G. V., & Nettle, D. (2017) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1600234x · Cited by 421
Mittal, C., & Griskevicius, V. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037398 · Cited by 426
Self-citationMittal, C., Griskevicius, V., Simpson, J. A., Sung, S., & Young, E. S. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000028 · Cited by 397
Self-citationPiff, P. K. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213501699 · Cited by 383
The effects of scarcity on consumer decision journeys
Hamilton, R. W., Thompson, D. V., Bone, S. A., Chaplin, L. N., Griskevicius, V., Goldsmith, K., Hill, R. P., John, D. R., Mittal, C., O’Guinn, T. C., et al. (2018) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-018-0604-7 · Cited by 408
“Unlike short-term resource scarcity, chronic resource scarcity can influence the consumer’s willingness to delay gratification (Griskevicius et al. 2013) and the relative focus on benefits for the self versus others (Piff et al. 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationRung, J. M., & Madden, G. J. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000462 · Cited by 358
“Any significant effects of mortality priming on discounting are complicated by the specific primes used and participant characteristics (e.g., high vs. low SES; high vs. low disgust-sensitivity; Griskevicius, Tybur, Delton, & Robertson, 2011; Kelley, Crowell, Tang, Harmon-Jones, & Schmeichel, 2015).”
Trzebiński, J., Cabański, M., & Czarnecka, J. Z. (2020) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2020.1765098 · Cited by 331
Griskevicius, V., Cantú, S. M., & van Vugt, M. (2012) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1509/jppm.11.040 · Cited by 347
Self-citationBoosting beauty in an economic decline: Mating, spending, and the lipstick effect.
Hill, S. E., Rodeheffer, C. D., Griskevicius, V., Durante, K. M., & White, A. E. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028657 · Cited by 321
Self-citationEconomic scarcity alters the perception of race
Krosch, A. R., & Amodio, D. M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1404448111 · Cited by 286
Cognition in harsh and unpredictable environments
Frankenhuis, W. E., Panchanathan, K., & Nettle, D. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.08.011 · Cited by 277
“We and others [13,15–20,21 ,22,23] argue that a presentorientation reflects a biological adaptation to harsh-unpredictable environments.”
BackgroundA Self‐Regulatory Model of Resource Scarcity
Cannon, C., Goldsmith, K., & Roux, C. (2019) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1035 · Cited by 280
How social class shapes thoughts and actions in organizations
Côté, S. (2011) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2011.09.004 · Cited by 262
“For instance, research showing that higher class individuals favor dispositional explanations of behavior (Grossman & Varnum, 2011; Kraus et al., 2009) may explain academic researchers’ interest in personality predictors of job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Ones et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialMishra, S. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314530517 · Cited by 265
The Social Ladder: A Rank-Based Perspective on Social Class
Kraus, M. W., Tan, J. J. X., & Tannenbaum, M. B. (2013) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2013.778803 · Cited by 258
Early life adversity and health-risk behaviors: Proposed psychological and neural mechanisms
Duffy, K. A., McLaughlin, K. A., & Green, P. A. (2018) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13928 · Cited by 237
The financial consequences of too many men: Sex ratio effects on saving, borrowing, and spending.
Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Ackerman, J. M., Delton, A. W., Robertson, T. E., & White, A. E. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024761 · Cited by 235
Self-citationAntecedents and consequences of panic buying: The case of COVID‐19
Prentice, C., Quach, S., & Thaichon, P. (2020) · International Journal of Consumer Studies · doi:10.1111/ijcs.12649 · Cited by 235
Increased Affluence Explains the Emergence of Ascetic Wisdoms and Moralizing Religions
Baumard, N., Hyafil, A., Morris, I., & Boyer, P. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.063 · Cited by 220
“, early reproduction, more offspring, and less nurturing), and a ‘‘slow’’ strategy, with opposite characteristics [23, 27].”
Creating When You Have Less: The Impact of Resource Scarcity on Product Use Creativity
Mehta, R., & Zhu, M. S. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucv051 · Cited by 247
“…creativity in subsequent, unrelated consumption environments supports the emerging view that there is a context-independent connection between perception of scarcity and consumer judgment and decision making (Griskevicius et al. 2011; Laran and Salerno 2013; Shah et al. 2012; Zhu and Ratner 2015).”
BackgroundEvidence for two facets of pride in consumption: Findings from luxury brands
McFerran, B., Aquino, K. F., & Tracy, J. L. (2014) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.03.004 · Cited by 232
How Financial Constraints Influence Consumer Behavior: An Integrative Framework
Hamilton, R. W., Mittal, C., Shah, A., Thompson, D. V., & Griskevicius, V. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1074 · Cited by 250
Self-citationWickham, S.-R., Amarasekara, N. A., Bartonicek, A., & Conner, T. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579205 · Cited by 223
A conceptual framework of contemporary luxury consumption
Wang, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2021.10.010 · Cited by 240
Reputation, Gossip, and Human Cooperation
Wu, J., Balliet, D. P., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12255 · Cited by 194
“Indeed, research shows that early experience (e.g., childhood SES) inf luences one’s contingent responses to subtle cues of threats in the current environment, whereas current SES does not have such effect (Griskevicius et al., 2013; Griskevicius et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAdaptive patterns of stress responsivity: A preliminary investigation.
Giudice, M. D., Hinnant, J. B., Ellis, B. J., & El‐Sheikh, M. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026519 · Cited by 178
Material Parenting: How the Use of Goods in Parenting Fosters Materialism in the Next Generation
Richins, M. L., & Chaplin, L. N. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/680087 · Cited by 179
“A measure similar to that used by Griskevicius et al. (2011) and others (Ahuvia and Wong 2002) was used to assess perceived economic status at each of the three grades.”
MethodChang, L., Lu, H. J., Lansford, J. E., Skinner, A. T., Bornstein, M. H., Steinberg, L. D., Dodge, K. A., Chen, B., Tian, Q., Bacchini, D., et al. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000655 · Cited by 167
Sze, Y. Y., Stein, J. S., Bickel, W. K., Paluch, R. A., & Epstein, L. H. (2017) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702617696511 · Cited by 165
Doom, J. R., VanZomeren‐Dohm, A., & Simpson, J. A. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579415001169 · Cited by 179
Bulley, A., Henry, J. D., & Suddendorf, T. (2016) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000061 · Cited by 166
What Can Cross-Cultural Correlations Teach Us about Human Nature?
Pollet, T. V., Tybur, J. M., Frankenhuis, W. E., & Rickard, I. J. (2014) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-014-9206-3 · Cited by 158
“For example, individuals who were exposed to deprivation during childhood might only speed up their reproductive strategy when relevant cues are present in their current environment (Griskevicius et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLife-History Strategy, Food Choice, and Caloric Consumption
Laran, J., & Salerno, A. G. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612450033 · Cited by 153
How Social Status Shapes Person Perception and Evaluation: A Social Neuroscience Perspective
Mattan, B. D., Kubota, J. T., & Cloutier, J. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616677828 · Cited by 164
Mere experience of low subjective socioeconomic status stimulates appetite and food intake
Cheon, B. K., & Hong, Y. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1607330114 · Cited by 152
Young, E. S., Griskevicius, V., Simpson, J. A., Waters, T. E. A., & Mittal, C. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000124 · Cited by 144
“Our context-dependent effects, however, have clear parallels in the animal literature (e.g., Bagot et al., 2009; Chaby et al., 2015), and they are consistent with other effects recently found in humans (Griskevicius et al., 2011, 2013; Mittal & Griskevicius, 2014; Mittal et al., 2015).”
ResultSelf-citationThe crowded life is a slow life: Population density and life history strategy.
Sng, O., Neuberg, S. L., Varnum, M. E. W., & Kenrick, D. T. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000086 · Cited by 141
Naturally Green: Harnessing Stone Age Psychological Biases to Foster Environmental Behavior
van Vugt, M., Griskevicius, V., & Schultz, P. W. (2014) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12000 · Cited by 152
Self-citationWeeland, J., Overbeek, G., de Castro, B. O., & Matthys, W. (2015) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-015-0196-4 · Cited by 138
“In humans, we see that growing up in families with a low social economic status may trigger a preference for immediate rewards, eventually predicting risky behaviors (Griskevicius et al. 2011).”
BackgroundLife-history theory in psychology and evolutionary biology: one research programme or two?
Nettle, D., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0490 · Cited by 137
Remembering the best and worst of times: Memories for extreme outcomes bias risky decisions
Madan, C. R., Ludvig, E. A., & Spetch, M. L. (2013) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0542-9 · Cited by 137
Lange, P. A. M. V., Rinderu, M. I., & Bushman, B. J. (2016) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x16000406 · Cited by 135
Lukaszewski, A. W. (2013) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1908 · Cited by 124
Amir, D., Jordan, M. R., & Rand, D. G. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.07.014 · Cited by 153
Mimicry and automatic imitation are not correlated
Genschow, O., van Den Bossche, S., Cracco, E., Bardi, L., Rigoni, D., & Brass, M. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183784 · Cited by 115
Quick and Dirty: Some Psychosocial Costs Associated with the Dark Triad in Three Countries
Jonason, P. K., Li, N. P., & Czarna, A. Z. (2013) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491301100116 · Cited by 123
“For instance, one could examine whether sociological/socioeconomic indicators like pathogen load (Schmitt, 2011), socioeconomic status (Griskevicius et al., 2011), or population density might account for inter-country differences.”
BackgroundThe evolution of life-history theory: a bibliometric analysis of an interdisciplinary research area
Nettle, D., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2019) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0040 · Cited by 143
“It is found as a short-hand way of introducing expectations and predictions in papers from ecology and evolutionary biology [1–3], but also psychology [4–7], anthropology [8], public health [9], criminology [10] and even accountancy [11].”
Evolution and human motivation: A fundamental motives framework
Schaller, M., Kenrick, D. T., Neel, R., & Neuberg, S. L. (2017) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12319 · Cited by 120
The effect of unpredictable early childhood environments on parenting in adulthood.
Szepsenwol, O., Simpson, J. A., Griskevicius, V., & Raby, K. L. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000032 · Cited by 118
Self-citationClass, chaos, and the construction of community.
Piff, P. K., Stancato, D. M., Martinez, A. G., Kraus, M. W., & Keltner, D. J. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029673 · Cited by 129
Resources, Harshness, and Unpredictability
Jonason, P. K., Icho, A., & Ireland, K. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704915623699 · Cited by 113
Experimental evidence for adaptive personalities in a wild passerine bird
Nicolaus, M., Tinbergen, J. M., Bouwman, K. M., Michler, S. P. M., Ubels, R., Both, C., Kempenaers, B., & Dingemanse, N. J. (2012) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1936 · Cited by 110
Паолини, С., & McIntyre, K. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317753504 · Cited by 107
Social Support and Academic Burnout Among University Students: A Moderated Mediation Model
Ye, Y., Huang, X., & Liu, Y. (2021) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s300797 · Cited by 138
“The reason behind the expected changes across SES may be the different roles of life attitude on academic burnout in students of different SES.”
InfluentialRodeheffer, C. D., Hill, S. E., & Lord, C. G. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612450892 · Cited by 98
Hurst, J. E., & Kavanagh, P. S. (2016) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.06.001 · Cited by 106
Intrepid, imprudent, or impetuous? The effects of gender threats on men's financial decisions.
Weaver, J. R., Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2012) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0027087 · Cited by 111
Silver Spoons and Platinum Plans: How Childhood Environment Affects Adult Health Care Decisions
Mittal, C., & Griskevicius, V. (2016) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucw046 · Cited by 106
“…vital role of childhood SES, there has been an increased interest in understanding how and why childhood SES influences adult behavior (Chen 2004; Griskevicius et al. 2011a, 2011b, 2013; Mittal and Griskevicius 2014; Mittal et al. 2015; Pampel, Krueger, and Denney 2010; Roux and Goldsmith 2014;…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationFunctional and Structural Brain Correlates of Socioeconomic Status
Yaple, Z. A., & Yu, R. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz080 · Cited by 103
Harsh childhood environmental characteristics predict exploitation and retaliation in humans
McCullough, M. E., Pedersen, E. J., Schroder, J. M., Tabak, B. A., & Carver, C. S. (2012) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2104 · Cited by 97
Perceived Extrinsic Mortality Risk and Reported Effort in Looking after Health
Pepper, G. V., & Nettle, D. (2014) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-014-9204-5 · Cited by 95
“When experimentally exposed to mortality primes, people who reported having low childhood SEP have been found to discount the future more steeply than thosewhowere exposed to control primes (Griskevicius et al. 2011).”
BackgroundMethodLay Theories of Obesity Predict Actual Body Mass
McFerran, B., & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612473121 · Cited by 91
“additional control variables: socio-economic status both currently and as a youth, since food choices are shaped early in life, (αs = .86 and .67, respectively; Griskevicius et al., 2011), home location (what best describes where you live? 1 = urban area, 2 = suburban area, 3 = smaller city or town, 4 = rural area), c…”
BackgroundVagal Tone and Children’s Delay of Gratification
Sturge‐Apple, M. L., Suor, J. H., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., Skibo, M. A., & Rogosch, F. A. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797616640269 · Cited by 98
Deciding what to observe: Thoughts for a post-WEIRD generation
Barrett, H. C. (2020) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.05.006 · Cited by 94
Putting revenge and forgiveness in an evolutionary context
McCullough, M. E., Kurzban, R., & Tabak, B. A. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x12001513 · Cited by 92
Coccia, M. (2017) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2017.10.005 · Cited by 136
Social Hierarchy, Social Status, and Status Consumption
Dubois, D., & Ordabayeva, N. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107706552.013 · Cited by 101
Sharman, S., Butler, K., & Roberts, A. D. L. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106071 · Cited by 90
Latitudinal Psychology: An Ecological Perspective on Creativity, Aggression, Happiness, and Beyond
Van de Vliert, E., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619858067 · Cited by 80
“However, this ecological perspective holds no monopoly on truth, as the results can in no way reject or undermine the explanatory relevance of life-history theory (e.g., Chisholm, 1999; Ellis et al., 2009; Griskevicius et al., 2011; Kaplan & Gangestad, 2005) and compensatory-control theory (e.”
BackgroundResultOn the Psychometric Study of Human Life History Strategies
Richardson, G. B., Sanning, B. K., Lai, M. H. C., Copping, L. T., Hardesty, P. H., & Kruger, D. J. (2017) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704916666840 · Cited by 84
“Consistent with past research (Griskevicius et al., 2011), the latter was observed at r ¼ .54.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe role of close relationships in terror management: a systematic review and research agenda
Plusnin, N., Pepping, C. A., & Kashima, E. S. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317753505 · Cited by 78
Under pressure: human adolescents express a pace-of-life syndrome
Lehmann, A. C., Eccard, J. A., Scheffler, C., Kurvers, R. H. J. M., & Dammhahn, M. (2018) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-018-2465-y · Cited by 79
“…behavior and/or psychological attributes (e.g., Figueredo et al. 2004; Figueredo and Rushton 2009; Jokela et al. 2009, 2011; Ellis et al. 2011; Griskevicius et al. 2011) and life-history traits (see also discussion), though few empirical studies integrate behavior, physiology, and lifehistory…”
BackgroundTemporal discounting across adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Seaman, K. L., Abiodun, S. J., Fenn, Z., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., & Mata, R. (2022) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000634 · Cited by 82
Bridging developmental systems theory and evolutionary psychology using dynamic optimization
Frankenhuis, W. E., Panchanathan, K., & Barrett, H. C. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12053 · Cited by 73
Vardy, T., & Atkinson, Q. D. (2019) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619826972 · Cited by 79
Putting All Your Eggs in One Basket
White, A. E., Li, Y. J., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Kenrick, D. T. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612461919 · Cited by 75
Self-citationAn evolutionary threat-management approach to prejudices
Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2015) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.06.004 · Cited by 74
“Harsh, unpredictable ecologies lead towards ―fastǁ strategies that are relatively present-focused, impulsive, and sexually unrestrained, whereas resource-sufficient and predictable ecologies lead towards ―slowǁ strategies that are more future-oriented, planful, and sexually restrained [48-50].”
BackgroundPepper, G. V., & Nettle, D. (2013) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.08.004 · Cited by 75
Social Class and Work: A Review and Organizing Framework
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Moergen, K. J. N., Tilton, J., & Gray, B. (2022) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063221076822 · Cited by 87
Is impulsive behavior adaptive in harsh and unpredictable environments? A formal model
Fenneman, J., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2020) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.02.005 · Cited by 78
Barbaro, N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2016) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260516640548 · Cited by 71
Martínez, J. L. C., Hasty, C. R., Morabito, D. M., Maranges, H. M., Schmidt, N. B., & Maner, J. K. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421001607 · Cited by 68
“Adaptive calibration models also provide a framework for understanding the ways with which people make decisions (Griskevicius et al., 2011, 2013; Simpson et al., 2012), and for understanding the structure and expression of a range of psychological disorders (Del Giudice, 2014, 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialProcrastination as a Fast Life History Strategy
Chen, B., & Chang, L. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704916630314 · Cited by 72
“, 2009), financial risk management (Griskevicius et al., 2011), high calorie dieting (Hill, Rodeheffer, DelPriore, & Butterfield, 2013; Laran & Salerno, 2013), and unstable intimate relationships (Olderbak & Figueredo, 2010) have been determined to be associated with fast LHs.”
BackgroundInfluentialMcAllister, L. S., Pepper, G. V., Virgo, S., & Coall, D. A. (2016) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0151 · Cited by 76
Wu, J., Guo, Z., Gao, X., & Kou, Y. (2020) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.09.001 · Cited by 69
Sotomayor, O. J. (2012) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2012.02.009 · Cited by 64
Life history strategy and human cooperation in economic games
Wu, J., Balliet, D. P., Tybur, J. M., Arai, S., Lange, P. A. M. V., & Yamagishi, T. (2017) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.03.002 · Cited by 68
“Some evidence suggests that the tendency to value future rewards over short-term bene fi ts (e.g., temporal discounting, time preference, delay of grati fi cation) — a signature of slow LH strategy (Griskevicius et al., 2011) — can predict cooperation.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationBirkás, B., Csathó, Á., Gács, B., & Bereczkei, T. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.046 · Cited by 63
The impact of COVID‐19 on consumer evaluation of authentic advertising messages
Park, J., Kim, J., Lee, D. C., Kim, S., Voyer, B. G., Kim, C., Sung, B., González‐Jiménez, H., Fastoso, F., Choi, Y. K., et al. (2021) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21574 · Cited by 67
“Behavioral tendencies developed in childhood are likely to persist in adulthood, especially under stressful conditions (Griskevicius et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWhen Paying for Reviews Pays Off: The Case of Performance-Contingent Monetary Rewards
Yu, Y., Khern-am-nuai, W., & Pinsonneault, A. (2022) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2022/15488 · Cited by 62
Neuberg, S. L., Williams, K. E. G., Sng, O., Pick, C., Neel, R., Krems, J., & Pirlott, A. G. (2020) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2020.04.004 · Cited by 45
Orhun, A. Y., & Palazzolo, M. (2019) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/0022243718821660 · Cited by 66
“2013) and that low-income households may be more present biased (Delaney and Doyle 2012; Griskevicius et al. 2011).”
InfluentialCôté, S., Stellar, J. E., Willer, R., Forbes, R. C., Martín, S., & Bianchi, E. C. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220916633 · Cited by 65
“Participants in Samples 1, 3, and 4 completed a scale consisting of three statements rated on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree): “My family usually had enough money for things when I was growing up,” “I grew up in a relatively wealthy neighborhood,” and “I felt relatively wealthy compared to the o…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Delton, A. W., & Robertson, T. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of New Mexico (US)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Griskevicius, Vladas
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1015-1026
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- PMC
- PMC3298774
- OpenAlex
- W2172137497
- Semantic Scholar
- 926b6e5ff6f663ec9ac18e79730426d0a165d7ac
- Cited by
- 790
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 62 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 15.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0843764)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- risk preferences, delay discounting, life history theory, socioeconomic status, child poverty, resource constraints, risky decision making, evolutionary psychology
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Arousal, Attitude to Death, Child, Cues, Decision Making, Female, Gambling, Humans, Individuality, Internal-External Control, Life Change Events, Life Expectancy, Male, Motivation, Personality Development, Poverty, Sex Factors, Social Class, Social Environment, Young Adult
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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