Prospective memory in an air traffic control simulation: External aids that signal when to act.
Open accessAbstract
At work and in our personal life we often need to remember to perform intended actions at some point in the future, referred to as Prospective Memory. Individuals sometimes forget to perform intentions in safety-critical work contexts. Holding intentions can also interfere with ongoing tasks. We applied theories and methods from the experimental literature to test the effectiveness of external aids in reducing prospective memory error and costs to ongoing tasks in an air traffic control simulation. Participants were trained to accept and hand-off aircraft and to detect aircraft conflicts. For the prospective memory task, participants were required to substitute alternative actions for routine actions when accepting target aircraft. Across two experiments, external display aids were provided that presented the details of target aircraft and associated intended actions. We predicted that aids would only be effective if they provided information that was diagnostic of target occurrence, and in this study, we examined the utility of aids that directly cued participants when to allocate attention to the prospective memory task. When aids were set to flash when the prospective memory target aircraft needed to be accepted, prospective memory error and costs to ongoing tasks of aircraft acceptance and conflict detection were reduced. In contrast, aids that did not alert participants specifically when the target aircraft were present provided no advantage compared to when no aids were used. These findings have practical implications for the potential relative utility of automated external aids for occupations where individuals monitor multi-item dynamic displays.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The literature on delayed intentions has rarely examined the ways that people manipulate the environment themselves to create perceptual triggers.
“While some studies have investigated the efficacy of experimenter-provided reminders (Guynn, McDaniel, & Einstein, 1998; Henry, Rendell, Phillips, Dunlop, & Kliegel, 2012; Loft, Smith, & Bhaskara, 2011; Vortac, Edwards, & Manning, 1995), the literature on delayed intentions has rarely examined the ways that we manipulate the environment ourselves to create perceptual triggers.”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Loft, Smith, & Bhaskara, 2011
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,406 · see citing works
Posner, M. I. (1980) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/00335558008248231 · Cited by 9,670 · see citing works
Handbook of perception and human performance
Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., & Thomas, J. P. (1986) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 4,033 · see citing works
Toward an instance theory of automatization.
Logan, G. D. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.4.492 · Cited by 3,466 · see citing works
Rasmussen, J. (1983) · IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/tsmc.1983.6313160 · Cited by 3,434 · see citing works
Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203728178 · Cited by 2,926 · see citing works
Categorization of action slips
Norman, D. A. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.1.1 · Cited by 1,736 · see citing works
Voluntary versus automatic control over the mind's eye
Jonides, J. (1981) · Attention and performance · Cited by 1,410 · see citing works
Contrast Analysis: Focused Comparisons in the Analysis of Variance.
Levin, J. R., Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1987) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2289419 · Cited by 1,252 · see citing works
Uniqueness of abrupt visual onset in capturing attention
Jonides, J., & Yantis, S. (1988) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03208805 · Cited by 971 · see citing works
Smith, R. E. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.3.347 · Cited by 729 · see citing works
Self-citationProspective Memory: An Overview and Synthesis of an Emerging Field
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452225913 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Prospective Memory : Cognitive, Neuroscience, Developmental, and Applied Perspectives
Kliegel, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007) · Cited by 627 · see citing works
Einstein, G. O., McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R. C., Mayfield, S., Shank, H., Morrisette, N., & Breneiser, J. E. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.3.327 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Sheridan, T. B., & Parasuraman, R. (2005) · Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics · doi:10.1518/155723405783703082 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
Humans: Still Vital After All These Years of Automation
Parasuraman, R., & Wickens, C. D. (2008) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872008x312198 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Stimulus-driven attentional capture and attentional control settings.
Yantis, S. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.19.3.676 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Dixon, S. R., & Wickens, C. (2006) · Hum. Factors · doi:10.1518/001872006778606822 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Loft, S. D., Sanderson, P. M., Neal, A. F., & Mooij, M. (2007) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872007x197017 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Self-citationConway, M., & Gathercole, S. E. (1997) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · Cited by 268 · see citing works
On the Independence of Compliance and Reliance: Are Automation False Alarms Worse Than Misses?
Dixon, S. R., Wickens, C. D., & McCarley, J. S. (2007) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872007x215656 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
The cost of event-based prospective memory: Salient target events.
Smith, R. E., Hunt, R. R., McVay, J. C., & McConnell, M. D. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.4.734 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Self-citationGuynn, M. J. (2003) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590344000178 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Metzger, U., & Parasuraman, R. (2005) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/0018720053653802 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Vigilance, monitoring, and search.
Parasuraman, R. (1986) · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Task interference in time-based, event-based, and dual intention prospective memory conditions☆
Hicks, J. L., Marsh, R. L., & Cook, G. I. (2005) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.04.001 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Cognitive processes and performance
Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., & Thomas, J. P. (1986) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Prospective memory: When reminders fail
Guynn, M. J., Mcdaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (1998) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03201140 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Bartram, L., Ware, C., & Calvert, T. W. (2003) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/s1071-5819(03)00021-1 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Signal regularity and the mindlessness model of vigilance
Helton, W. S., Hollander, T. D., Warm, J. S., Matthews, G., Dember, W. N., Wallaart, M., Beauchamp, G., Parasuraman, R., & Hancock, P. A. (2005) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712605x38369 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Variation of Operator's Strategies and Regulating Effects on Workload
Sperandio, J. (1971) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140137108931277 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Moray, N. P., & Inagaki, T. (2000) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/14639220052399159 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
(1997) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0019184 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Situation Awareness: Understanding Dynamic Environments
Durso, F. T., & Sethumadhavan, A. (2008) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872008x288448 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
What costs do reveal and moving beyond the cost debate: Reply to Einstein and McDaniel (2010).
Smith, R. E. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0019183 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationIs task interference in event-based prospective memory dependent on cue presentation?
Loft, S. D., Kearney, R., & Remington, R. W. (2008) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.36.1.139 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationAn investigation into the resource requirements of event-based prospective memory
Loft, S. D., & Yeo, G. (2007) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03193447 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationATC-labAdvanced: An air traffic control simulator with realism and control
Fothergill, S., Loft, S. D., & Neal, A. F. (2009) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.41.1.118 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationDissociating prospective memory from vigilance processes
Brandimonte, M. A., C., F., R., D., & Ferrante, D. (2001) · ArTS Archivio della ricerca di Trieste (University of Trieste https://www.units.it/) · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Errors of memory in air traffic control
Shorrock, S. T. (2005) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2005.04.001 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Durso, F. T., & Manning, C. A. (2008) · Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics · doi:10.1518/155723408x342853 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Functions of External Cues in Prospective Memory
Vortac, O. U., Edwards, M. B., & Manning, C. A. (1995) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658219508258966 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Task interference from event-based intentions
Marsh, R. L., Cook, G. I., & Hicks, J. L. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195926 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Prospective Memory in Aviation and Everyday Settings
Kliegel, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203809945-28 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Commentary: Goals and the intentions meant to fulfill them
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Cohen, A. (2008) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The impact of structure on cognitive complexity in air traffic control
Histon, J. (2002) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Breaks and task switches in prospective memory
Finstad, K., Bink, M. L., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1223 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Prospective memory and task interference in a continuous monitoring dynamic display task.
Loft, S. D., & Remington, R. W. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0018900 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationControl of access to memory: The use of task interference as a behavioral probe
Loft, S. D., Humphreys, M. S., & Whitney, S. J. (2007) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2007.04.002 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Bartram L Ware C Calvert T 2003 Moticons: Detection, distraction, and task International Journal of Computer-Human Studies. Special issue: Notification user interfaces 58 515 545
- Klein GA Rouse WB 1989 Recognition-primed decisions Advances in Man-Machines Systems Research 5 47 92 Greenwich, CT JAI Press
- Loft S Finnerty D Remington RW (under review) Can the use of context reduce prospective memory error and costs to ongoing tasks in an air traffic control simulation?
- Reason J 1990 Human Error Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment
Gilbert, S. J. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.972963 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Slow down and remember to remember! A delay theory of prospective memory costs.
Heathcote, A., Loft, S. D., & Remington, R. W. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0038952 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationBalfe, N., Sharples, S., & Wilson, J. R. (2014) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2014.08.002 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Boag, R. J., Strickland, L. J. G., Loft, S. D., & Heathcote, A. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.05.011 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationExtremity Bias in Online Reviews: The Role of Attrition
Brandes, L., Godes, D., & Mayzlin, D. (2019) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/00222437211073579 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Attentional costs and failures in air traffic control notifications
Imbert, J.-P., Hodgetts, H. M., Parise, R., Vachon, F., Dehais, F., & Tremblay, S. (2014) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.952680 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Wait a second: Brief delays in responding reduce focality effects in event-based prospective memory
Loft, S. D., & Remington, R. W. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.750677 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationCue Utilization and Broad Indicators of Workplace Expertise
Loveday, T., Wiggins, M. W., & Searle, B. J. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343413497019 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Rummel, J., Einstein, G. O., & Rampey, H. (2012) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.707214 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Cognitive control and capacity for prospective memory in complex dynamic environments.
Boag, R. J., Strickland, L. J. G., Heathcote, A., Neal, A. F., & Loft, S. D. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000599 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationBall, H., Peper, P., Alakbarova, D., Brewer, G. A., & Gilbert, S. J. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1991380 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Investigating how implementation intentions improve non-focal prospective memory tasks
Smith, R. E., McConnell, M. D., McVay, J. C., Lopez, J. A., & Loft, S. D. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.05.003 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationMichailovs, S., Visser, T. A. W., Huf, S., & Loft, S. D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000126 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationBig data and ergonomics methods: A new paradigm for tackling strategic transport safety risks
Walker, G. H., & Strathie, A. (2015) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2015.09.008 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Applying Psychological Science to Examine Prospective Memory in Simulated Air Traffic Control
Loft, S. D. (2014) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721414545214 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationSmith, R. E. (2016) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2016.11.003 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationAdaptive response criteria in road hazard detection among older drivers
Feng, J., Choi, H.-S., Craik, F. I. M., Levine, B., Moreno, S., Naglie, G., & Zhu, M. (2017) · Traffic Injury Prevention · doi:10.1080/15389588.2017.1373190 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Prospective Memory in Complex Sociotechnical Systems
Grundgeiger, T., Sanderson, P. M., & Dismukes, R. K. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000171 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Investigating the cost to ongoing tasks not associated with prospective memory task requirements
Smith, R. E., & Loft, S. D. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.04.002 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationA fresh pair of eyes on prospective memory monitoring
Shelton, J. T., & Christopher, E. A. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0601-3 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Remembering to execute deferred tasks in simulated air traffic control: The impact of interruptions.
Wilson, M. K., Farrell, S., Visser, T. A. W., & Loft, S. D. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000171 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationStrickland, L. J. G., Elliott, D., Wilson, M. K., Loft, S. D., Neal, A. F., & Heathcote, A. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000224 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationUsing Spatial Context to Support Prospective Memory in Simulated Air Traffic Control
Loft, S. D., Finnerty, D., & Remington, R. W. (2011) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720811421783 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationBenefits from prospective memory offloading depend on memory load and reminder type.
Peper, P., Alakbarova, D., & Ball, B. H. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001191 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Social importance enhances prospective memory: evidence from an event-based task
Walter, S. M., & Meier, B. (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1221973 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Williams, J. C., & Bell, J. L. (2016) · Safety and Reliability · doi:10.1080/09617353.2017.1336884 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Speeding in school zones: Violation or lapse in prospective memory?
Gregory, B., Irwin, J., Faulks, I. J., & Chekaluk, E. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000019 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Loft, S. D., Pearcy, B. T. D., & Remington, R. W. (2011) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000051 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationThe development of children’s prospective memory: Lessons for developmental science
Mahy, C. E. V. (2021) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12437 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Strategic monitoring improves prospective memory: A meta-analysis
Peper, P., & Ball, B. H. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231161015 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Reminders eliminate age-related declines in prospective memory.
Ball, B. H., Peper, P., & Robison, M. K. (2024) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000844 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bowden, V. K., & Loft, S. D. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000085 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationProspective Memory Performance in Simulated Air Traffic Control
Wilson, M. K., Strickland, L. J. G., Farrell, S., Visser, T. A. W., & Loft, S. D. (2019) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720819875888 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationAn assessment of learning rates in habitual prospective memory
Vogel, A., Arnett, C. R., Blais, C., & Brewer, G. A. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02214-w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Integrated responding improves prospective memory accuracy
Elliott, D., Strickland, L. J. G., Loft, S. D., & Heathcote, A. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-02038-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the fallibility of human memory for future actions
Pluviano, S. (2019) · ERA · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Minimizing the negative effects of prospective memory in simulated air traffic control
Chapman, M. (2016) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (University of Western Australia)
Task Interference Effect of Event-Based Prospective Memory
周, 圆. (2018) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2018.81008
The Role of Spontaneous Retrieval, Monitoring and Sustained Attention in Prospective Memory
Schultz, N. B. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/4865355
- Authors
- Loft, S., Smith, R. E., & Bhaskara, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- The University of Texas at San Antonio (US)
- The University of Adelaide (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 60-70
- ISSN
- 1076-898X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2192
- PMC
- PMC3066451
- OpenAlex
- W2065518561
- Cited by
- 40
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 5.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council (DP0986942)
- National Institute on Aging (AG034965)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Keywords
- prospective memory, air traffic control, external support, safety-critical work, switch costs, aircraft conflict detection, attention allocation, automated decision support
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Attention, Aviation, Computer Simulation, Decision Making, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Surveys and Questionnaires, Task Performance and Analysis, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
