Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: A longitudinal study.

“Sense of mastery was assessed with the seven-item Pearlin–Schooler Mastery Scale (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978), a well-established scale that measures the extent to which individuals perceive having control over their lives (Pearlin et al., 1981).”

“The results of the present study suggest that sense of mastery (i.e., the perceived control over one's life; cf. Pearlin et al., 1981) is an important moderator of the self-esteem trajectory.”

“Introversion could be connected to low self-esteem (Erol & Orth, 2011), which differentiates those who continue NSSI or SI from those who cease.”

“…broad personality traits such as the Big Five (extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness; Goldberg, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987) may shape people’s self-esteem during aversive life events (e.g., Boyce & Wood, 2010; Erol & Orth, 2011; Solomon & Jackson, 2014).”

“Warm, supportive parenting is associated with high self-esteem (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“…self-concept, and their self-confidence develops with age and becomes clearer and more defined (Mullis, Dossey, Foertsch, Jones, & Gentile, 1992; Erol & Orth, 2011); 2) gender is a significant factor in self-esteem (McMullin & Cairney, 2004; Moksnes, Moljord, Espnes, & Byrne, 2010); 3) income…”

“…five trait domains (Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001; Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, & Potter, 2002; Watson et al., 2002), as individuals high in self-esteem tend to be more open to experience, more conscientious, more extraverted, more agreeable, and less neurotic (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“Adolescence is a particularly salient period for understanding the development of the self because of the complexity of mat-urational (puberty), contextual (e.g., school transition), and cognitive (formal operational thinking) changes and transitions occurring during this life phase [1, 4, 9].”

“Given differences in the level of psychological resources during the transition to adulthood across racial and ethnic groups (see, e.g., Erol and Orth 2011; Mossakowski 2012; Thoits 2006; but see Turner, Taylor, and Van Gundy 2004), it is plausible that these compositional differences may…”

“Erol and Orth (2011) say that self-esteem is an assessment based on emotions of one’s self value or worth.”

“A reasonable suggestion for the decrease in symptom levels in the present study might be that selfesteem increases during young adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“Self-esteem, self-image, self-perception, self-concept, and selfefficacy are closely related terms, referring to the way people view and evaluate themselves (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“In line with previous findings (Arnett, 2007; Chung et al., 2014; Erol & Orth, 2011; Shaw, Liang, & Krause, 2010; Twenge & Campbell, 2001; Wagner et al., 2013), our longitudinal data showed that self-esteem improved over time both throughout adolescence and in emerging adulthood.”

“Self-con fi dence is understood to be established via positive feed-back about one ’ s abilities 39 and is linked with self-esteem and the self-assessment of self-worth or value.”

“Gender, in the classical heteronormative dichotomy of being female or male, was not that distinctive as other studies suggested for well-being [7, 18, 71] or mental health in early adolescence [26, 28, 29, 56, 66].”

“However, high levels of attach-ment-related anxiety can be associated with excessive reassurance seeking, while high levels of attachment-related avoidance is linked to limited attention to partner emotional health (Erol & Orth, 2011, 2014; Fraley et al., 2000; Shaver et al., 2005).”

“Several longitudinal studies and meta-analyses have shown that self-esteem is most changeable in the transition from adolescence to young adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011; Huang, 2010; Orth et al., 2010; 2018).”

“Global self- esteem tends to show linear mean- level increases from adolescence to young adulthood (Birkeland et al., 2012; Chung et al., 2014; Erol & Orth, 2011; Kiviruusu et al., 2015; Orth et al., 2018, 2010; Wagner et al., 2013; see Orth & Robins, 2019, for a review).”

“Children who have a low self-concept are also more likely to commit crimes as young adults [24].”

“For example, Erol and Orth (2011) found that Latinos had lower self-esteem than Whites from age 14 to 30 years, but this difference reversed in midlife as Latinos showed a sharper increase in self-esteem than Whites.”

“A and 36.9% for FBT‐BN by EOT (with even greater reductions at longer term follow‐up), and self‐esteem returned to a mean level found in healthy adolescents by 12‐month follow‐up (28–30 across studies of healthy adolescents; Bagley, Bolitho, & Bertrand, 1997; Erol & Ulrich, 2011).”

“Finally, we expect (Hypothesis b) that the neuroticism of unstable introverts and extraverts might negatively impact self-esteem, which in turn will decrease SWB (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“Second, it may be that other aspects of youth’s lives grow in importance as they age, such as work, sports, or out-of-school activities (Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003; Erol & Orth, 2011; Scales et al., 2006).”

“Additionally, using longitudinal methods, researchers have found that self-esteem levels tend to increase throughout adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011), before beginning to decline later in life (Orth, Trzesniewski, & Robins, 2010).”

“Self-esteem has been demonstrated to rise with respondents’ age (erol & Orth, 2011; Bleidorn et al., 2016). thus, if age is a substantial forecaster of self-esteem, it will also be a significant mediator in the context of phubbing and its relationship with self-esteem. the same assumption was made…”

“On the one hand, some work in developmental research showed that the pattern of self-esteem differed in adolescence, adulthood, and old ages (Erol & Orth, 2011; Orth, Trzesniewski, & Robins, 2010; Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005).”

“Although limited evidence consists pertaining to the stability and change of self-esteem, longitudinal studies found support for self-esteem to be a dynamic, rather than a static, construct (Baldwin & Hoffmann, 2002; Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“It can fluctuate and be dynamic, sensitive to the effect of inner and outer experiences (e.g., life events, family/friend relations) during adolescence (Baldwin & Hoffmann, 2002a, b; Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“Erol and Orth (2011) evaluate these traits among young adults, using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which includes eight assessments performed over a 14-year period of a national probability sample of 7100 individuals age 14–30.”

“Self-esteem develops during adolescence and young adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011), and is associated with schooling decisions, occupational choices, and wages (Heckman et al., 2006).”

“…life, the request to be successful can be particularly exacting, as individuals deal with the challenges of forming a coherent sense of identity and building positive self-esteem and self-efficacy (Arnett, 2014; Erol & Orth, 2011; Porfeli & Lee, 2012; Schunk & Meece, 2006; Schwarz et al., 2010).”

“There is evidence that average selfesteem increases during late childhood and adolescence (Erol and Orth, 2011; Orth et al., 2018), which is usually the period when orthodontic treatment is sought.”

“Study (Erol & Orth, 2011) showed that self-esteem will develop optimally in adolescence stage.”

“Self-esteem is a large part of adolescents’ understanding of self and is likely to fluctuate, as it is susceptible to internal and external influences during adolescence and youth (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“This variability can be attributed to the strong predictive power of SE on young athletes (Cheng & Furnham, 2003; Diener, 1984; Erol & Orth, 2011; Rosenberg, 1965).”

“Previous studies that found an increase in self-esteem levels over time have been mainly conducted with secondary school students, 35,36 whereas the present study surveys college students.”

“In a study by Moksnes and Espnes‟s [60], it was reported that self-esteem was not only moulded by the individuals‟ appraisals of themselves, but also to what degree they matter to the people around them [61-63].”

“A recent study by Erol and Orth (2011) found that self-esteem increases from adolescence through young adulthood, although there were ethnic differences. In relation to these findings, this study contributes to our understanding toward the formation of hope, self-esteem, and purpose in life during adolescence. Importa…”

“We deliberately chose the age of 15 because this is an important age during which adolescents develop feelings of self-worth (Doyle & Markiewicz, 2005; Erol & Orth, 2011; Moretti & Peled, 2004).”

“The study got the same results as Erol and Orth (2011) wherein there is no significant difference between the two variables; the wellbeing and sex.”

“However, regarding the trajectory of self-esteem from age 14 to age 30, no gender differences were found (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“Thereby, developmental patterns of self-esteem in adolescence are mixed, sometimes indicating decreases in early adolescence (Eccles et al. 1989) but typically showing stability and later increases (Erol and Orth 2011; Wagner et al. 2018).”

“Erol and Orth (2011) tracked the overall self-esteem of more than 7,100 U.S. adolescents, showing a consistent increase from the age of 14 to early youth trend.”

“This findings may be explained by the fact that adolescents are less satisfied with their body image than adults (37).”

“Adolescence is a key phrase for self-esteem development (Mruk, 2013), and many studies have depicted the plasticity of self-esteem in adolescents (Erol & Orth, 2011; Pan, 2015).”

“…toward appearance and are more susceptible to low self-esteem which may increase the risk of developing psychiatric conditions such as BDD. 33,34 –38 We found that while gender was not significantly associated with positive BDD screening in the overall cohort, 10,14,16,17 female gender was…”

“People with self-esteem want to realize their goals and have a more stable emotional and mental stance toward life in general (Errol and Orth 2011; Rosenberg 1965).”

“Nevertheless, there is little agreement regarding the development of self-esteem through young adulthood due to few longitudinal-based studies conducted on a non-clinical adolescent population [2,5].”

“It forms throughout childhood based on everyday interactions, experiences, and self-comparisons and continues through adolescence and young adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“This includes an accurate sense of positive self‐esteem[38] and during adolescence, a forming sense of identity.”

“Some longitudinal studies have found that students’ self-esteem levels tend to increase over time (Erol & Orth, 2011 ; Orth et al., 2015 ), but their subjects were mainly secondary school students.”

“However, adolescents with low self-esteem often experience a wide range of adverse outcomes, including internalizing problems (Erol & Orth, 2011).”

“With the recent literatures (Emmanuel .et .al, 2015; Erol & Orth, 2011) showing and proving the strong and high relation between self-esteem and adolescence, it is important for the school to tackle the issue and this is where, school counselors play their active role.”

“Erol and Orth defined self-esteem as the affective aspect of self-concept, influenced by factors internal and external to adolescents (Erol and Orth 2011).”

“Research findings thus suggest that individuals with a high sense of mastery, better health, emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness experience higher self-esteem.(42) Compared to the healthy control group, schizophrenic patients in this study showed more def icits on some neuropsychological variables.”

“Regarding gender differences, our results showed that there were no differences between males and females in terms of self-esteem (Erol & Orth, 2011), forgiveness of others, or forgiveness of situations (Cabras et al., 2017, 2019).”

“Higher education significantly decreases the odds for depression [26] with stronger effects in adolescence, a critical developmental period where relevant resources and self-efficacy are built [27,28].”