The DOI matches its Crossref record; 289 of the 309 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 59 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review.
Open accessAbstract
Emotion expression is an important feature of healthy child development that has been found to show gender differences. However, there has been no empirical review of the literature on gender and facial, vocal, and behavioral expressions of different types of emotions in children. The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy through adolescence. We analyzed 555 effect sizes from 166 studies with a total of 21,709 participants. Significant but very small gender differences were found overall, with girls showing more positive emotions (g = -.08) and internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = -.10) than boys, and boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g = .09) than girls. Notably, gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence, underscoring the importance of contextual factors in gender differences. Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced with increasing age, with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = -.20) and adolescence (g = -.28). Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = -.27). Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions). Our findings of gender differences in emotion expression in specific contexts have important implications for gender differences in children's healthy and maladaptive development.
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“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Significant, but very small, gender differences were found overall”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = −.10) than boys”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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“gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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“For negative emotion expressions, follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the peer and alone contexts (Q [1, 21] = 7.80, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the alone contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“Follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the negative and neutral tasks (Q [1, 88] = 7.53, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (girls > boys) in the neutral than the negative tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, the effect size for non-demand tasks was not significant, but the effect size was significant and of small magnitude for demand tasks (g = .17, boys > girls).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“Follow-up comparisons for externalizing emotion expressions showed significant differences in the strength of effect sizes between the adolescent and infant groups (Q [1, 22] = 19.55, p < .0001), the adolescent and toddler/preschool groups (Q [1, 50] = 43.18, p < .0001), and the adolescent and child groups (Q [1, 22] = 31.10, p < .0001), with negative (girls > boys) effect sizes in the adolescent”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“In addition, there were significant differences in effect sizes between the alone and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 33] = 9.24, p < .008), with stronger gender differences in externalizing emotion expressions (boys > girls) when alone than when with unfamiliar adults.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, age and context remained significant (β = .25, p < .05 for infant vs. toddler/preschool; β = .51, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.30, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Comparing the Relative Contribution of the Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“anger expressions showed a significant very small effect size with boys higher than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“Additionally, a significant small to medium effect size was found for externalizing emotion expressions when alone (mean g = .28, boys > girls).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“Also, for internalizing emotion expressions, a significant small-magnitude effect size was found with parents (mean g = −.12, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“only positive emotion-unspecified showed a significant (small) effect size with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for internalizing emotions of −.10, indicating greater internalizing emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interest expressions showed a significant small effect size, with girls higher than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for positive emotions of −.08, indicating greater positive emotion expression for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for externalizing emotions of .09, indicating greater externalizing emotion expressions for boys than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“contempt expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size with girls showing higher contempt than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the positive emotion category, the mean effect size was significant for the neutral task only (mean g = −.23, small magnitude).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up Bonferroni-corrected comparisons for externalizing expressions showed significant differences in effect sizes between the peer and parent contexts (Q [1, 41] = 7.15, p < .008) and between the peer and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 34] = 10.73, p < .008), with larger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the parent and unfamiliar adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and boys expressing more externalizing emotions such as anger than girls (g = .09)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfamiliar adult.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the internalizing emotion expressions, all were in the direction of girls greater than boys, with two (fear and sympathy) showing significant very small to small effect sizes (g’s = −.10, −.13) and one (shame) showing a significant medium effect size (g = −.56).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, joy at another’s expense (e.g., gleeful taunting of others) showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring boys (g = .29), which is in contrast to findings for the positive emotion expression category, with greater positive emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but emerged by the toddler/preschool period (for externalizing emotion expressions) and in childhood (for general negative and positive emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“contrary to prediction, we found that gender differences in many of the emotion expressions either diminished (for internalizing emotion expressions) or reversed direction (for externalizing and negative emotion expressions) in adolescence (although gender differences were strong for positive emotion expressions at this age)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Unexpectedly, and contrary to past meta-analytic findings (Hall & Halberstadt, 1986), we found significant gender differences in positive emotion expressions only in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hall & Halberstadt, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences typically did not emerge when children were observed with a parent (except for internalizing emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences in the expression of externalizing emotions (with boys > girls) were virtually non-existent when with parents (g = .01), but were of small to medium magnitude with peers (g = .29) and when alone (g = .28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes for positive emotion expressions (with girls greater than boys) and general negative emotion expressions (with girls lower than boys) were larger in situations with a demand to minimize or mask negative emotion (g = − .27 for positive emotion; g = .17 for negative emotion) than in situations without this demand (g = −.07 for positive; g = .01 for negative).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Demand to Change Emotion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the externalizing emotion expressions, only anger showed a significant very small effect size favoring boys (g = .10), suggesting that gender differences with boys greater than girls in externalizing emotion expressions may be driven by differences in anger.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls expressing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and more internalizing negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety (g = −.10) than boys”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences in positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions were not present in infancy, but were of small to medium magnitude in middle childhood and adolescence (with g’s ranging from .13 to .35)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences were not found in infancy for positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions (although they were found for internalizing emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, there was not a significant gender difference for the three effect sizes for pride expressions, although the effect size of g = .42 favored boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found very small to small magnitude effect sizes favoring girls for all of the specific emotion expressions in the positive emotion category (happiness, surprise, and positive emotion-unspecified), although the only effect size that reached significance was for positive emotion-unspecified (g = −.15).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls also expressed more internalizing emotions (such as sadness, fear, sympathy, and shame) than boys, particularly in negative situations and when with an unfamiliar adult.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls showed greater positive emotion expressions than boys and this gender difference became increasingly evident as the age of the research participants increased into adolescence and in situations with an unfamiliar adult and in which there was social pressure to mask negative emotions by appearing cheery.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings suggest that there are small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions, with larger gender differences emerging at certain ages and in certain contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys, in contrast, showed greater externalizing emotion expressions, particularly anger expressions, in the toddler/preschool and middle childhood periods, in negative situations, and when with peers or alone, which could contribute to boys’ greater risk for conduct problems.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
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In the paper
“LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003) meta-analysis of adults and adolescents found significant gender differences (females higher than males) in smiling behavior (d = −.41).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Else-Quest and colleagues (2006) found a small but significant effect size for fearfulness (but no significant differences for sadness or anger), with higher fearfulness in girls than boys (d = −.12).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They did not find a significant overall gender difference for smiling behavior”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Maccoby and Jacklin reported no consistent gender differences for children’s expression of fear.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Maccoby and Jacklin
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Buck (1977) found that boys’ emotional expressions decreased with age from age 4–6 whereas girls’ expressions did not.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Theories of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Buck (1977) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They reported that infant boys and girls were similar in their frustration reactions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“girls’ negative emotional outbursts diminished with age more than boys’. As a result, toddler (18 month old) boys showed greater frustration reactions than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in early childhood, boys show less language ability and inhibitory control than girls (see Brody, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > General Theories of Gender Differences
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brody, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, as predicted, gender differences were mostly larger when children were with unfamiliar adults (for internalizing emotions) or with peers (for externalizing and negative emotions) than when they were with parents. Unexpectedly, the gender difference was also present for externalizing emotion expressions when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, as predicted, gender-role consistent gender differences in positive and general negative emotion expressions were stronger in demand situations. This prediction did not hold true for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirty-eight articles (23%) were double-coded by a trained research assistant and were checked for inter-rater reliability for the moderator variables.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Study Coding
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Random effects models produce larger standard errors, therefore reducing the probability of Type I errors (for a review of risks resulting when not using random effects models when appropriate, see Field, 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Random Effects Models
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Field, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“women have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men- Kring & Gordon, 1998”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Theories of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kring & Gordon, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As hypothesized, gender-role consistent gender differences in emotion expression were most pronounced in tasks designed to elicit negative emotions, at least for internalizing and externalizing emotions. Unexpectedly, gender differences in positive emotion expressions were largest in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, in this meta-analysis, the Kendall’s Tau values were non-significant (for positive emotion expression: τb= −.10, ns; for internalizing: τb= −.02, ns; for externalizing: τb= .12, ns; for general negative: τb= −.01, ns)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Publication Bias
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicated that the main effect of age on gender differences in emotion expressions might be driven by a developmental transition with: 1) girls showing greater positive emotion than boys by adolescence and 2) boys showing more externalizing and negative emotions than girls prior to adolescence but girls showing greater externalizing and negative emotions than boys in adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Kappa statistics were .91 for age, .79 for emotion, .72 for task valence, and .71 for interpersonal context (mean κ = .81), indicating good reliability.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Study Coding
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“girls’ greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter), consistent with female gender roles, and b) girls’ greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Moderators of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Davis, 1995 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Most studies provided multiple effect sizes, therefore violating the assumption of independence of meta-analyses (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Effect Size Calculations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lipsey & Wilson, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Boys’ greater tendency to show joy at another’s expense may lead to risk for conduct problems as this form of positive emotion is callous and potentially a form of aggression (e.g., Chaplin et al., 2005; Frick, Cornell, Barry, Bodin, & Dane, 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Frick et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“With parents, at least among children who are not in high risk conditions, children may feel free to express a full range of emotions, including gender-role inconsistent emotions (Zeman & Garber, 1996). This freedom to express any emotions would then lead to smaller gender differences in emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Zeman & Garber, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The finding that girls begin to express more externalizing emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to be more expressive of emotions overall than boys as they reach adolescence. It may also reflect a recent change in gender roles for adolescent girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brown, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We would need 146 more positive, 109 more internalizing, and 62.4 externalizing effect sizes, or about twice as many effect sizes as are in the present meta-analysis.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Publication Bias
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to facilitating healthy development, a well-developed sense of assertiveness and self-efficacy may also protect boys against depression and anxiety, contributing to boys’ lower rates of these disorders.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Negative tasks may elicit greater amounts of sadness, fear, anger, and other internalizing and externalizing emotions, resulting in a greater range and greater ability to detect gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“when interacting with individuals whom children do not know as well, children may regulate their emotion expressions to conform to societal gender roles (La France et al., 2003), leading to greater gender differences in emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites La France et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ greater propensity to display positive emotion when interacting with unfamiliar adults, and their greater tendency to mask negative emotions when the situation calls for it (such as when receiving a disappointing gift), may contribute to and be influenced by their intention and ability to please adults and to behave in prosocial ways.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that the many changes of adolescence, including physiological (e.g., puberty) and social (e.g., at school and in the peer group), bring about an increase in internalizing emotion expressions for both boys and girls, attenuating gender differences for this emotion category.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, girls may both express and experience higher shame than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference in externalizing emotion expressions (with boys > girls) when alone could reflect a tendency for boys to experience more externalizing emotions than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys’ modulated anger expressions may facilitate the development of assertiveness, persistence, and self-efficacy.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In addition, girls’ greater sadness, sympathy/empathic concern, and shame expressions, if taken to an extreme, may be a risk for depression (e.g., Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999) and may contribute to girls’ increases in depression in adolescence (Hankin, et al., 1998).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hankin et al., 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ more frequent displays of positive emotions may reflect their propensity to engage new persons socially, to foster interpersonal harmony, and to appease adults.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An alternate explanation for our findings could be that girls’ experience in reducing anger and other externalizing emotion expressions when with peers and non-parental adults, at least prior to adolescence, carries over to situations when girls are alone, leading to gender differences in the alone context with girls lower than boys in externalizing expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is notable that boys show greater externalizing (and general negative) emotions than girls when with peers as this may help them to negotiate peer relationships in an assertive manner and could protect them against succumbing to peer pressure.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If true, this would suggest that boys may indeed have good regulatory abilities for externalizing emotions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that positive and negative tasks may not elicit gender differences for joy and other positive emotion expressions and instead these are found in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which may further suggest that gender differences in some emotion expressions may begin quite early and may be either innate or due to very early socialization responses of caregivers.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may suggest that girls are better at regulating emotion to meet social demands and/or that they are more motivated than boys to cover up negative emotions with positive emotions in order to protect another’s feelings”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Demand to Change Emotion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ greater tendency to express positive emotions may contribute to and be influenced by their greater prosocial behavior than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Boys’ greater rates of externalizing emotion expressions such as anger in the toddler/preschool years may be one contributing factor to the higher rates of behavior problems in boys, a gender difference that notably appears around the toddler/preschool age (Keenan & Shaw, 1997).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keenan & Shaw, 1997 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For those adolescent girls who account for the gender difference in externalizing emotions expression, there may be risk. For example, alcohol and drug use, which are on the rise in adolescent girls (Amaro et al., 2001), have been linked to the use of anger to cope with stressors (Wills, DuHamel, & Vaccaro, 1995).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Amaro et al., 2001 source
- Not matchedcites Wills et al., 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“And, as with positive emotions, an excessive tendency to display internalizing emotions may be a risk factor for certain psychological problems. For example, if one responds to stress by experiencing and expressing high levels of fear and anxiety, this pattern may lead to risk for the development of anxiety disorders, several of which are more common for girls than boys (Ollendick & Yule, 1990).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ollendick & Yule, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Boys may be more inclined to express anger-related emotions than girls with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough and tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rose & Rudolph, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“At the same time, girls’ (and women’s) efforts to be cheery, even when this cheeriness is unfelt (as in the “demand” tasks) may also confer risk (Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Keenan & Hipwell, 2005; Zahn-Waxler, Cole, & Barrett, 1991). If girls attempt to appear cheerful even when they are not, they may internalize feelings of distress rather than express them to achieve their goals for well-being, which”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keenan & Hipwell, 2005 source
- Not matchedcites Zahn-Waxler et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the gender difference found in infancy for internalizing emotion expressions may not reflect gender differences in the internal experience of internalizing emotions per se, but instead may reflect differences in negative emotions more generally or differences in some other non-emotional state.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ patterns of emotion expression may contribute to their greater prosociality than boys. However, this pattern could also confer risk that increases girls’ likelihood of developing symptoms of depression and anxiety.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“gender differences have been found for some traits in adulthood, with women reporting somewhat greater anxiety/neuroticism and gregariousness than men and men reporting greater assertiveness than women (Feingold, 1994); differences that parallel our findings of gender differences in internalizing, positive, and externalizing emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Feingold, 1994 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There also were a number of studies that were excluded because the authors did not provide enough information to calculate effect sizes. This could have biased our results because studies with null results sometimes leave out this information.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our review was limited to observational studies of emotion expression.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, among children of Asian heritage there may be socialization pressure for all children to control emotions, potentially leading both girls and boys to suppress emotion expressions, possibly attenuating the ability to detect gender differences (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole & Tan, 2007
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our review was also limited to studies of emotion expression and did not assess gender differences in strategies used to regulate emotion.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We attempted to counter this bias by including all studies of emotion expression, not just those that examined gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another limitation of this review is the small cell sizes in some of our analyses. In particular, there were relatively few observational studies of emotion in adolescents”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, our findings underscore the importance of examining contextual factors influencing gender differences in emotion expressions across child and adolescent development.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion, are related to individual differences in patterns of emotion experience and expression (Revelle & Scherer, 2009).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Revelle & Scherer, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“most of the studies in the present meta-analysis consisted of primarily Caucasian samples, which prevented us from examining differences between ethnic groups”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“which is important, since gender roles for emotion expression may differ in different ethnic groups (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole & Tan, 2007
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our review included studies that measured emotion expression in a variety of ways, including the frequency, duration, and intensity of expression. It was not possible to disentangle these different measurements in the present study”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As in all studies of gender differences, it is important to note that there is great variability not only between boys and girls, but also within boys and girls (see Hyde, 2005).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
Observed emotional expression is studied less often than self- or parent-report, and when observed, it does not consistently show gender differences.
“Observations of emotional expression are less commonly conducted; and when they are, the observed emotions do not always show such consistent gender differences”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.
“We assumed that our effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies.
“as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A recent review on emotional expressions in childhood and adolescence shows that the sex differences in expression of various emotions only begin to emerge through school-age and adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, there were also studies that indicated no sex differences regarding Negative emotions (self-reported anger, negative emotion, powerful emotions; Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding Negative emotions, females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions, such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear (SMDs = 0.12–1.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2004; van Hemert et al., 2011)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For those cases in which there is an overall sex difference such that females score higher on Negative emotions, higher living conditions seem to predict that they express and feel even more negative emotions (e.g., guilt and crying) compared with men (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For Positive emotions, women have higher levels of happiness and smile more (SMD = 0.10; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Finally, no clear pattern can be seen for measures for which there is no sex difference (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These differences are influenced by contextual factors; differences between boys and girls are almost absent when the children interact with parents, but become significant during interaction with unfamiliar adults or peers (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“whereas males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness (SMDs = 0.07–0.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, for the single study analyzed in the new analyses, in which females scored higher (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), sex differences were smaller in countries with higher living conditions.”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“if anything, an opposite pattern seems to be present for self-reported anger and brow furrowing, that is, there are larger sex differences in countries with higher living conditions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“In low-risk children, a small female advantage in social affect, e.g., more expression of positive emotions with unfamiliar adults, can be detected [41].”
From Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study (2015) · cites this paper as [41]
Citations
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Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias
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(2000) · Cited by 9,198
The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results.
Rosenthal, R. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638 · Cited by 9,068 · cited 1×
“Boys may be more inclined than girls to express anger-related emotions with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough-and-tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfam…”
BackgroundThe Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
Tropman, J. E., & Hochschild, A. R. (1984) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.2307/3324333 · Cited by 8,750
Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review
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“This conservative approach has been used frequently in recent meta-analytic reviews (e.g., Aldao et al., 2010; Richardson , Abraham, & Bond, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe psychology of sex differences
Maccoby, E. E. (1975) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(75)80031-1 · Cited by 5,714 · cited 1×
“In their classic narrative review of gender differences in childhood, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) examined gender differences in two types of emotion expressions: frustration reactions (outbursts of negative emotions such as anger or crying in response to frustrating situations) and fear.”
BackgroundMethods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
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Do Women Leaders Spell the End of War?
Barnhart, J. N., & Trager, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.003.0006
Barnhart, J. N., & Trager, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.003.0004
Women and War in the Modern Era
Barnhart, J. N., & Trager, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.003.0007
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Gender and Aggression: Nature or Nurture?
Barnhart, J. N., & Trager, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.003.0003
Women’s Votes and the World Wars
Barnhart, J. N., & Trager, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.003.0005
The Hope for Suffrage and Peace in the New Century
Barnhart, J. N., & Trager, R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.003.0002
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.002.0007
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197629758.002.0003
Alkalay, S., & Dolev, A. (2023) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22905
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PREVALENCE AND RISK FACTORS OF ANXIETY IN CHILDREN IN NORTH MACEDONIA
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Ricart, M., Coronel, M., Solé-Llussà, A., Ros‐Morente, A., & Alzina, R. B. (2023) · CES Psicología · doi:10.21615/cesp.6240
“No obstante, según muestra la literatura, estas diferencias parecen ser muy sensibles al contexto, variables personales y familiares, entre otras (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundThe Emotional Content of Children’s Writing: A Data-Driven ApproachPreprint
Dong, Y., Hsiao, Y., Dawson, N., Banerji, N., & Nation, K. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hjdte
Faruk, M. O., Powell, G. E., & Asif, M. H. (2023) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.134491.1
Navarro-Loli, J. S., Domínguez-Lara, S., Parco, D. A., Bárrig-Jó, P., & Romero-Mezarina, F. (2023) · Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación - e Avaliação Psicológica · doi:10.21865/ridep69.3.02
Cyberbullying and Depression among Chinese Youth
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Kulturelle Modelle auf der Grundlage des Ausdrucks von Emotionen
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Diebold, T., Bossi, C. B., Nischak, P., et al. (2023) · Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Heilpädagogik/Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Heilpädagogik · doi:10.57161/z2023-09-01
“Im Laufe der weiteren Entwicklung lernen Kinder, eigene Emotionen zu verstehen und auch Emotionen bei anderen Menschen wahrzunehmen, diese zu verbalisieren und sich mit den Auslösern und Folgen der erlebten Emoti-onen auseinanderzusetzen. sind (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Sanchis-Sanchis et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBosacki, S. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394259212.ch8
Κακούρης, Β., & Kamtsios, S. (2024) · Psychology the Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society · doi:10.12681/psy_hps.33169 · Cited by 1
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Features of manifestation of fears in children of senior preschool age
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Ömeroğulları, M., & Obermeier, R. (2024) · Journal for Educational Research Online / Journal für Bildungsforschung Online · doi:10.31244/jero.2022.02.02
“Im allgemeinen Entwicklungsverlauf des globalen Wohlbe-findens in der Schule konnten jedoch keine Unterschiede zwischen Mädchen und Jungen beobachtet werden (Hascher & Hagenauer, 2011; Wustmann Seiler et al., 2016).”
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Beaumont, S. (2024) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.25182413 · Cited by 1
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542970
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542976
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542961
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542958
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542982
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542952
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542973
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542979
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542955
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542964
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542946
Mulder, R. H., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., Veenstra, J., Tiemeier, H. W., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.23542949
Gibhardt, S., Hepach, R., & Henderson, A. M. E. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/na9vz
Habibi, M., Yegaei, P. S., Aghdash, S. A., Zaru, R., Hadi, N., Martin, N., & Trejos‐Castillo, E. (2024) · Fagbokforlaget eBooks · doi:10.55669/oa311001
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Parenting Correlates of Children's Emotion Regulation: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
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AYDIN, A., & Özyürek, A. (2024) · 19 Mayıs Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.52835/19maysbd.1356380
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Nóblega, M., Bartra, R., Conde, G., Castro, M. G., del Prado, J. N., Uchuya, D., & Retiz, O. (2024) · Revista de Psicología · doi:10.18800/psico.202402.004
ERİNLİK DÖNEMİNDEKİ ÇOCUKLARIN FARKINDALIK VE ÖZNEL İYİ OLUŞ DURUMLARININ İNCELENMESİ
Solak, Z., & Özçelik, A. D. Ö. (2024) · Mehmet Akif Ersoy üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. · doi:10.21764/maeuefd.1409346
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Lynch, M., Curtis, A., Ahern, E., et al. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/em62u
Baere, R. D., Segura, B., Junqué, C., Narciso, L., & Uribe, C. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820480-1.00220-5
Prosen, S., & Vitulić, H. S. (2024) · Journal for the Study of Education and Development Infancia y Aprendizaje · doi:10.1177/02103702241266376
“Socio-cultural emotion display rules may contribute to gender differences (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), and one of the rules present in Slovenian culture is that anger expression is more appropriate for boys than girls.”
InfluentialLøhre, A., Uthus, M., & Aas, H. K. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2024.2394402
“This corresponds to findings of boys reacting with higher levels of external emotion expression than girls (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
InfluentialPeculiarities of the Emotions Manifestation by 7–8 Old Children in Speech and Facial Expressions
Kleshnev, E. A., Frolova, O. V., & Lyakso, E. E. (2024) · Российский физиологический журнал им И М Сеченова · doi:10.31857/s0869813924040077
Raza, H. F., Amédée, L. M., Domond, P., Orri, M., Côté, S. M., & Hébert, M. (2024) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-024-00665-y · Cited by 1
“One hypothesis could be that boys are less socialized to express their emotional distress than girls (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Khairuddin, L. H., Madon, Z., & Arshat, Z. (2024) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v14-i10/23274
“These trends are observable from early stages of development, as boys tend to exhibit more externalizing emotions during preschool and toddlerhood compared to girls (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialYang, T., & Dahm, P. C. (2024) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12581
Germanenko, I., Vrubļevska, J., Bezborodovs, N., & Rancāns, E. (2024) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.13625
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Zaki, N. M., Shehata, M. A., & Eissa, M. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5027873
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Muazzam, A., Fatima, S., Shabbir, A., Iqbal, N., Zia, S., & Tauseef, H. (2024) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-08-2024-0129
Gmuca, S., Abel, D., McGill, M., Stryker, D., Akpek, E., Eriksen, W., Weiss, P. F., & Cronholm, P. F. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12010048 · Cited by 1
“While this may be reflective, in part, of the overall female predominance of this patient population in general [35], emotional differences have been demonstrated between adolescent females and males [36].”
McKay, C., & McCubbin, I. (2024) · British Journal of Visual Impairment · doi:10.1177/02646196241305553
“While it is well-established that girls generally exhibit more internalizing symptoms than boys (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), it is unclear why VI boys did not differ from TD boys.”
Wynn, C. J., McClain, M. B., Roanhorse, T. T., Golson, M. E., Harris, B., Bera, J., & Shahid, R. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06711-w
Uyanık, D., & Dinçer, Ç. (2025) · Yaşadıkça Eğitim · doi:10.33308/26674874.2025391788
“Kız çocuklarının, üzüntü, kaygı ve sempati gibi olumlu ve içsel duyguları daha fazla sergiledikleri, buna karşılık erkek çocukların ise öfke gibi dışsal duyguları daha fazla sergiledikleri gözlemlenmiştir (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Dobbs ve diğerleri, 2004).”
Pandey, A., Johnson, Z., McCann, C., et al. (2025) · Child Protection and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.chipro.2025.100122
Helmikstøl, B., Moe, V., Smith, L., & Fredriksen, E. (2025) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-025-01320-2
“Sex differences may also be time and context specific (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Kim et al., 2015).”
Examining Gender Differences in Children’s Reasoning About Empathy
Guerrero, M. J., Smith-Flores, A. S., & Powell, L. J. (2026) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2026.2667519
Santos, B., Mota, C. P., Carvalho, H., Costa, M., Ferreira, T., Goulter, N., Moretti, M. M., & Matos, P. M. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03044-9 · Cited by 1
“Previous research regarding the general population has shown that men tend to present more externalizing emotions, like anger, and women tend to present more internalizing emotions, such as sadness and anxiety (Bastiaanssen et al., 2014; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Relationship Between Smartphone Use and Traumatic Tooth Fractures in Korean Adolescents
Chae, Y. K., Ryu, S., Lee, H., Choi, S. C., & Nam, O. H. (2025) · International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry · doi:10.1111/ipd.13322
“In addition, recent studies have reported that TDIs are attributable to behavioral factors and the expression of emotions [3, 4].”
Roșioară, A.-I., Năsui, B. A., Ciuciuc, N., Sîrbu, D. M., Curşeu, D., Vesa, Ș. C., Popescu, C. A., & Popa, M. (2025) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina61061031
“The study results evidenced that boys are more likely to report having kind and helpful colleagues/peers compared to girls ( p = 0.016), and this result contrasts those of other studies from abroad [44,45].”
InfluentialCastellana, G., & Vincenzo, C. D. (2025) · ECPS, Journal of educational cultural and psychological studies, The series · doi:10.7359/1599-2025-valutazione-scolastica-competenze-socio-emotive
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Fur, S. L., Gueorguieva, I., Perge, K., Guemazi-Kheffi, F., Frament, N., Bouhours‐Nouet, N., Razafimahefa, B., Trioche-Eberschweiler, P., Nicolescu, R. C., Kherchiche, P. P., et al. (2025) · Pediatric Diabetes · doi:10.1155/pedi/8833434
“We have no explanation for this observation, which does not seem to be due to differences in emotional expression between genders [43].”
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Egbuniwe, I., van Reekum, C. M., & Sakaki, M. (2025) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2025.113201
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Wang, Q., Qiao, Y., & Su, Y. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15070902 · Cited by 1
“Furthermore, boys are more likely to express externalizing emotions like anger (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), making them more prone to responding to maternal burnout with aggression.”
Écalle, J., Thierry, X., & Magnan, A. (2025) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/1467-9817.70009
Lane, A. S., Merrick, J., & Narayan, A. J. (2025) · Adversity and Resilience Science · doi:10.1007/s42844-025-00172-5
“It is likely that gendered socialization processes shape these differences; societal norms tend to allow girls to display sadness and fear while encouraging boys to display toughness and anger (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), which may increase vulnerability to self-harm as a coping mechanism in females.”
Influences of gender expression: norms and contexts
Keener, E. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-36486-0.00022-0
Psychoemotional state and sleep disorders in adolescent girls with menstrual dysfunction
Bolshakova, S. E., Михайловна, М. И., Berdina, O. N., Евгеньевна, Х. Е., Prokhorova, Z. V., Votineva, A. S., Витальевна, Б. О., & Рычкова, Л. В. (2025) · Бюллетень Восточно-Сибирского научного центра Сибирского отделения Российской академии медицинских наук · doi:10.29413/abs.2025-10.3.16 · Cited by 1
Faria, L., Costa, A., & Takšić, V. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13080096 · Cited by 3
“…variable that might reflect specific emotional patterns shaped by sociocultural processes or inherent biological differences (Brody and Hall 2008; Chaplin and Aldao 2013) is explored in this study at the beginning of the secondary school cycle, observing its influence on the developmental…”
Nice to meet you.(!) Gendered norms in punctuation usage
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Li, X., Liu, Z., Wu, T. T., Yuan, Z., Wang, W., Zhao, L., Yang, S., & Liang, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658354
“In contrast, women are more likely to adopt emotionally expressive coping strategies (33, 34), making their psychological distress more readily identi fi able and addressable in hotline settings.”
Prevalence and Correlates of Impostor Syndrome Among Computer and Electrical Engineering Students
Krajačić, M., Petrović, J., & Putarek, V. (2025) · MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO) · doi:10.1109/mipro65660.2025.11131843
Čujuća deca gluvih roditelja i uloga posrednika: perspektiva rodnih uloga
Žujović, A., Mašić, K., & Erceg, D. (2025) · Stanovnistvo · doi:10.59954/stnv.702
Children’s Emotional Index: indicating children’s tourist experiences from an observational approach
Xu, C., Zhong, S., Li, P., & Xiao, X. (2025) · Children s Geographies · doi:10.1080/14733285.2025.2552981
“Girls also display more nuanced emotional expressions, especially with internalized emotions like sadness, empathy, and anxiety (Chaplin and Aldao 2013).”
Lin, Y., Hu, J., Yue, X., & Zhang, X. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5406104
The Impact of Parents’ Psychological Control on the Problem Behaviour of Adolescents
Song, W., Wang, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2025) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/202522203029
Khalid, H., Valoojerdy, Z. K., Talwar, V., & Bosacki, S. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7357691/v1
Zhao, S., Chen, X., & Chen, X. (2025) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2025.2564657
“The differences may indicate that the mother–daughter relationship is more intimate than mother–son relationship (Crouter et al., 1995; Dubas & Gerris, 2002) and that girls tend to be more sociable and emotionally expressive than boys Chaplin and Aldao (2013); X. Chen and Li (2012).”
Positive Child Relationship Behavior Toward Mothers in 3–7-Year-Old Children with Mental Disorders
Briegel, W., & Mederer, P. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a001048
Borst, R. (2025) · Children s Literature in Education · doi:10.1007/s10583-025-09633-y
Competencias socioemocionales en niños víctimas del conflicto armado
Díaz, R. D. L. C. G., Navarro-Obeid, J., la Ossa, C. T. A. D., Vitola, E. A. P., & Sierra, J. J. A. (2025) · European Public & Social Innovation Review · doi:10.31637/epsir-2026-2088
Ivanova, M. Y., Eiden, R. D., Seay, D. M., Perry, K. J., & Linden‐Carmichael, A. N. (2025) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-025-01369-z
“As a result of biological and/or socialization influences, girls may be more likely to express distress inward as INT problems, whereas boys may express distress outward as EXT problems (Lee et al., 2022; for meta-analysis and reviews, see Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Anger Rumination Uniquely Contributes to Emerging Personality Pathology in Adolescent Boys
O’Dell, C. C., Robins, C. M., Charles, N. E., Mixon, M., & Barry, C. T. (2025) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-025-10257-1
“As previously mentioned, evidence suggests men with BPD display more aggression and other externalizing symptoms than women with BPD (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Hoertel et al., 2014; Martin et al., 2023; Sharp et al., 2014; Sher et al., 2019).”
Araújo, C. A., Nandrino, J., & Martins, C. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254251386777
“As girls are expected to be attentive to the emotions of others and boys are frequently expected to be more rational (Chaplin & Aldao, 2014), this may result in a different interpretation when trying to self-evaluate their ability to identify others’ emotions.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chaplin, Tara M.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 139
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 735-765
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC3597769
- OpenAlex
- W2156233592
- Cited by
- 1,247
- References
- 309
- Citations by year
- 2026: 153 · 2025: 161 · 2024: 133 · 2023: 123 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 7
- FWCI
- 24.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (K01DA024759)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, emotional expression, children, facial expressions, vocal expression, behavioral expression, positive emotions, age differences, interpersonal context, parent-child interaction, peer interaction, adolescence, middle childhood, toddlerhood
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Analysis of Variance, Child, Child Behavior, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Infant, Male, Models, Theoretical, Regression Analysis, Sex Characteristics, Socialization, Adolescent Development
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