The DOI matches its Crossref record; 289 of the 309 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 59 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review.
Open accessAbstract
Emotion expression is an important feature of healthy child development that has been found to show gender differences. However, there has been no empirical review of the literature on gender and facial, vocal, and behavioral expressions of different types of emotions in children. The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy through adolescence. We analyzed 555 effect sizes from 166 studies with a total of 21,709 participants. Significant but very small gender differences were found overall, with girls showing more positive emotions (g = -.08) and internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = -.10) than boys, and boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g = .09) than girls. Notably, gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence, underscoring the importance of contextual factors in gender differences. Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced with increasing age, with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = -.20) and adolescence (g = -.28). Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = -.27). Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions). Our findings of gender differences in emotion expression in specific contexts have important implications for gender differences in children's healthy and maladaptive development.
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“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Significant, but very small, gender differences were found overall”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = −.10) than boys”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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“gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
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“For negative emotion expressions, follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the peer and alone contexts (Q [1, 21] = 7.80, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the alone contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“Follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the negative and neutral tasks (Q [1, 88] = 7.53, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (girls > boys) in the neutral than the negative tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, the effect size for non-demand tasks was not significant, but the effect size was significant and of small magnitude for demand tasks (g = .17, boys > girls).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“Follow-up comparisons for externalizing emotion expressions showed significant differences in the strength of effect sizes between the adolescent and infant groups (Q [1, 22] = 19.55, p < .0001), the adolescent and toddler/preschool groups (Q [1, 50] = 43.18, p < .0001), and the adolescent and child groups (Q [1, 22] = 31.10, p < .0001), with negative (girls > boys) effect sizes in the adolescent”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“In addition, there were significant differences in effect sizes between the alone and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 33] = 9.24, p < .008), with stronger gender differences in externalizing emotion expressions (boys > girls) when alone than when with unfamiliar adults.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, age and context remained significant (β = .25, p < .05 for infant vs. toddler/preschool; β = .51, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.30, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Comparing the Relative Contribution of the Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“anger expressions showed a significant very small effect size with boys higher than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“Additionally, a significant small to medium effect size was found for externalizing emotion expressions when alone (mean g = .28, boys > girls).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“Also, for internalizing emotion expressions, a significant small-magnitude effect size was found with parents (mean g = −.12, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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In the paper
“only positive emotion-unspecified showed a significant (small) effect size with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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In the paper
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for internalizing emotions of −.10, indicating greater internalizing emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interest expressions showed a significant small effect size, with girls higher than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for positive emotions of −.08, indicating greater positive emotion expression for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for externalizing emotions of .09, indicating greater externalizing emotion expressions for boys than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“contempt expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size with girls showing higher contempt than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the positive emotion category, the mean effect size was significant for the neutral task only (mean g = −.23, small magnitude).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up Bonferroni-corrected comparisons for externalizing expressions showed significant differences in effect sizes between the peer and parent contexts (Q [1, 41] = 7.15, p < .008) and between the peer and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 34] = 10.73, p < .008), with larger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the parent and unfamiliar adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and boys expressing more externalizing emotions such as anger than girls (g = .09)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfamiliar adult.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the internalizing emotion expressions, all were in the direction of girls greater than boys, with two (fear and sympathy) showing significant very small to small effect sizes (g’s = −.10, −.13) and one (shame) showing a significant medium effect size (g = −.56).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, joy at another’s expense (e.g., gleeful taunting of others) showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring boys (g = .29), which is in contrast to findings for the positive emotion expression category, with greater positive emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but emerged by the toddler/preschool period (for externalizing emotion expressions) and in childhood (for general negative and positive emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“contrary to prediction, we found that gender differences in many of the emotion expressions either diminished (for internalizing emotion expressions) or reversed direction (for externalizing and negative emotion expressions) in adolescence (although gender differences were strong for positive emotion expressions at this age)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Unexpectedly, and contrary to past meta-analytic findings (Hall & Halberstadt, 1986), we found significant gender differences in positive emotion expressions only in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hall & Halberstadt, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences typically did not emerge when children were observed with a parent (except for internalizing emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences in the expression of externalizing emotions (with boys > girls) were virtually non-existent when with parents (g = .01), but were of small to medium magnitude with peers (g = .29) and when alone (g = .28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes for positive emotion expressions (with girls greater than boys) and general negative emotion expressions (with girls lower than boys) were larger in situations with a demand to minimize or mask negative emotion (g = − .27 for positive emotion; g = .17 for negative emotion) than in situations without this demand (g = −.07 for positive; g = .01 for negative).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Demand to Change Emotion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the externalizing emotion expressions, only anger showed a significant very small effect size favoring boys (g = .10), suggesting that gender differences with boys greater than girls in externalizing emotion expressions may be driven by differences in anger.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls expressing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and more internalizing negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety (g = −.10) than boys”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences in positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions were not present in infancy, but were of small to medium magnitude in middle childhood and adolescence (with g’s ranging from .13 to .35)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences were not found in infancy for positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions (although they were found for internalizing emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, there was not a significant gender difference for the three effect sizes for pride expressions, although the effect size of g = .42 favored boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found very small to small magnitude effect sizes favoring girls for all of the specific emotion expressions in the positive emotion category (happiness, surprise, and positive emotion-unspecified), although the only effect size that reached significance was for positive emotion-unspecified (g = −.15).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls also expressed more internalizing emotions (such as sadness, fear, sympathy, and shame) than boys, particularly in negative situations and when with an unfamiliar adult.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls showed greater positive emotion expressions than boys and this gender difference became increasingly evident as the age of the research participants increased into adolescence and in situations with an unfamiliar adult and in which there was social pressure to mask negative emotions by appearing cheery.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings suggest that there are small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions, with larger gender differences emerging at certain ages and in certain contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys, in contrast, showed greater externalizing emotion expressions, particularly anger expressions, in the toddler/preschool and middle childhood periods, in negative situations, and when with peers or alone, which could contribute to boys’ greater risk for conduct problems.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
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In the paper
“LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003) meta-analysis of adults and adolescents found significant gender differences (females higher than males) in smiling behavior (d = −.41).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Else-Quest and colleagues (2006) found a small but significant effect size for fearfulness (but no significant differences for sadness or anger), with higher fearfulness in girls than boys (d = −.12).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They did not find a significant overall gender difference for smiling behavior”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Maccoby and Jacklin reported no consistent gender differences for children’s expression of fear.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Maccoby and Jacklin
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Buck (1977) found that boys’ emotional expressions decreased with age from age 4–6 whereas girls’ expressions did not.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Theories of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Buck (1977) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They reported that infant boys and girls were similar in their frustration reactions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“girls’ negative emotional outbursts diminished with age more than boys’. As a result, toddler (18 month old) boys showed greater frustration reactions than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in early childhood, boys show less language ability and inhibitory control than girls (see Brody, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > General Theories of Gender Differences
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brody, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, as predicted, gender differences were mostly larger when children were with unfamiliar adults (for internalizing emotions) or with peers (for externalizing and negative emotions) than when they were with parents. Unexpectedly, the gender difference was also present for externalizing emotion expressions when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, as predicted, gender-role consistent gender differences in positive and general negative emotion expressions were stronger in demand situations. This prediction did not hold true for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirty-eight articles (23%) were double-coded by a trained research assistant and were checked for inter-rater reliability for the moderator variables.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Study Coding
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Random effects models produce larger standard errors, therefore reducing the probability of Type I errors (for a review of risks resulting when not using random effects models when appropriate, see Field, 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Random Effects Models
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Field, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“women have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men- Kring & Gordon, 1998”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Theories of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kring & Gordon, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As hypothesized, gender-role consistent gender differences in emotion expression were most pronounced in tasks designed to elicit negative emotions, at least for internalizing and externalizing emotions. Unexpectedly, gender differences in positive emotion expressions were largest in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, in this meta-analysis, the Kendall’s Tau values were non-significant (for positive emotion expression: τb= −.10, ns; for internalizing: τb= −.02, ns; for externalizing: τb= .12, ns; for general negative: τb= −.01, ns)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Publication Bias
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicated that the main effect of age on gender differences in emotion expressions might be driven by a developmental transition with: 1) girls showing greater positive emotion than boys by adolescence and 2) boys showing more externalizing and negative emotions than girls prior to adolescence but girls showing greater externalizing and negative emotions than boys in adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Kappa statistics were .91 for age, .79 for emotion, .72 for task valence, and .71 for interpersonal context (mean κ = .81), indicating good reliability.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Study Coding
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“girls’ greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter), consistent with female gender roles, and b) girls’ greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Moderators of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Davis, 1995 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Most studies provided multiple effect sizes, therefore violating the assumption of independence of meta-analyses (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Effect Size Calculations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lipsey & Wilson, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Boys’ greater tendency to show joy at another’s expense may lead to risk for conduct problems as this form of positive emotion is callous and potentially a form of aggression (e.g., Chaplin et al., 2005; Frick, Cornell, Barry, Bodin, & Dane, 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Frick et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“With parents, at least among children who are not in high risk conditions, children may feel free to express a full range of emotions, including gender-role inconsistent emotions (Zeman & Garber, 1996). This freedom to express any emotions would then lead to smaller gender differences in emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Zeman & Garber, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The finding that girls begin to express more externalizing emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to be more expressive of emotions overall than boys as they reach adolescence. It may also reflect a recent change in gender roles for adolescent girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brown, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We would need 146 more positive, 109 more internalizing, and 62.4 externalizing effect sizes, or about twice as many effect sizes as are in the present meta-analysis.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Publication Bias
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to facilitating healthy development, a well-developed sense of assertiveness and self-efficacy may also protect boys against depression and anxiety, contributing to boys’ lower rates of these disorders.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Negative tasks may elicit greater amounts of sadness, fear, anger, and other internalizing and externalizing emotions, resulting in a greater range and greater ability to detect gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“when interacting with individuals whom children do not know as well, children may regulate their emotion expressions to conform to societal gender roles (La France et al., 2003), leading to greater gender differences in emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites La France et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ greater propensity to display positive emotion when interacting with unfamiliar adults, and their greater tendency to mask negative emotions when the situation calls for it (such as when receiving a disappointing gift), may contribute to and be influenced by their intention and ability to please adults and to behave in prosocial ways.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that the many changes of adolescence, including physiological (e.g., puberty) and social (e.g., at school and in the peer group), bring about an increase in internalizing emotion expressions for both boys and girls, attenuating gender differences for this emotion category.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, girls may both express and experience higher shame than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference in externalizing emotion expressions (with boys > girls) when alone could reflect a tendency for boys to experience more externalizing emotions than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys’ modulated anger expressions may facilitate the development of assertiveness, persistence, and self-efficacy.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In addition, girls’ greater sadness, sympathy/empathic concern, and shame expressions, if taken to an extreme, may be a risk for depression (e.g., Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999) and may contribute to girls’ increases in depression in adolescence (Hankin, et al., 1998).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hankin et al., 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ more frequent displays of positive emotions may reflect their propensity to engage new persons socially, to foster interpersonal harmony, and to appease adults.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An alternate explanation for our findings could be that girls’ experience in reducing anger and other externalizing emotion expressions when with peers and non-parental adults, at least prior to adolescence, carries over to situations when girls are alone, leading to gender differences in the alone context with girls lower than boys in externalizing expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is notable that boys show greater externalizing (and general negative) emotions than girls when with peers as this may help them to negotiate peer relationships in an assertive manner and could protect them against succumbing to peer pressure.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If true, this would suggest that boys may indeed have good regulatory abilities for externalizing emotions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that positive and negative tasks may not elicit gender differences for joy and other positive emotion expressions and instead these are found in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which may further suggest that gender differences in some emotion expressions may begin quite early and may be either innate or due to very early socialization responses of caregivers.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may suggest that girls are better at regulating emotion to meet social demands and/or that they are more motivated than boys to cover up negative emotions with positive emotions in order to protect another’s feelings”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Demand to Change Emotion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ greater tendency to express positive emotions may contribute to and be influenced by their greater prosocial behavior than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Boys’ greater rates of externalizing emotion expressions such as anger in the toddler/preschool years may be one contributing factor to the higher rates of behavior problems in boys, a gender difference that notably appears around the toddler/preschool age (Keenan & Shaw, 1997).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keenan & Shaw, 1997 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For those adolescent girls who account for the gender difference in externalizing emotions expression, there may be risk. For example, alcohol and drug use, which are on the rise in adolescent girls (Amaro et al., 2001), have been linked to the use of anger to cope with stressors (Wills, DuHamel, & Vaccaro, 1995).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Amaro et al., 2001 source
- Not matchedcites Wills et al., 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“And, as with positive emotions, an excessive tendency to display internalizing emotions may be a risk factor for certain psychological problems. For example, if one responds to stress by experiencing and expressing high levels of fear and anxiety, this pattern may lead to risk for the development of anxiety disorders, several of which are more common for girls than boys (Ollendick & Yule, 1990).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ollendick & Yule, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Boys may be more inclined to express anger-related emotions than girls with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough and tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rose & Rudolph, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“At the same time, girls’ (and women’s) efforts to be cheery, even when this cheeriness is unfelt (as in the “demand” tasks) may also confer risk (Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Keenan & Hipwell, 2005; Zahn-Waxler, Cole, & Barrett, 1991). If girls attempt to appear cheerful even when they are not, they may internalize feelings of distress rather than express them to achieve their goals for well-being, which”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keenan & Hipwell, 2005 source
- Not matchedcites Zahn-Waxler et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the gender difference found in infancy for internalizing emotion expressions may not reflect gender differences in the internal experience of internalizing emotions per se, but instead may reflect differences in negative emotions more generally or differences in some other non-emotional state.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ patterns of emotion expression may contribute to their greater prosociality than boys. However, this pattern could also confer risk that increases girls’ likelihood of developing symptoms of depression and anxiety.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“gender differences have been found for some traits in adulthood, with women reporting somewhat greater anxiety/neuroticism and gregariousness than men and men reporting greater assertiveness than women (Feingold, 1994); differences that parallel our findings of gender differences in internalizing, positive, and externalizing emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Feingold, 1994 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There also were a number of studies that were excluded because the authors did not provide enough information to calculate effect sizes. This could have biased our results because studies with null results sometimes leave out this information.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our review was limited to observational studies of emotion expression.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, among children of Asian heritage there may be socialization pressure for all children to control emotions, potentially leading both girls and boys to suppress emotion expressions, possibly attenuating the ability to detect gender differences (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole & Tan, 2007
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our review was also limited to studies of emotion expression and did not assess gender differences in strategies used to regulate emotion.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We attempted to counter this bias by including all studies of emotion expression, not just those that examined gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another limitation of this review is the small cell sizes in some of our analyses. In particular, there were relatively few observational studies of emotion in adolescents”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, our findings underscore the importance of examining contextual factors influencing gender differences in emotion expressions across child and adolescent development.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion, are related to individual differences in patterns of emotion experience and expression (Revelle & Scherer, 2009).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Revelle & Scherer, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“most of the studies in the present meta-analysis consisted of primarily Caucasian samples, which prevented us from examining differences between ethnic groups”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“which is important, since gender roles for emotion expression may differ in different ethnic groups (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole & Tan, 2007
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our review included studies that measured emotion expression in a variety of ways, including the frequency, duration, and intensity of expression. It was not possible to disentangle these different measurements in the present study”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As in all studies of gender differences, it is important to note that there is great variability not only between boys and girls, but also within boys and girls (see Hyde, 2005).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
Observed emotional expression is studied less often than self- or parent-report, and when observed, it does not consistently show gender differences.
“Observations of emotional expression are less commonly conducted; and when they are, the observed emotions do not always show such consistent gender differences”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.
“We assumed that our effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies.
“as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A recent review on emotional expressions in childhood and adolescence shows that the sex differences in expression of various emotions only begin to emerge through school-age and adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, there were also studies that indicated no sex differences regarding Negative emotions (self-reported anger, negative emotion, powerful emotions; Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding Negative emotions, females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions, such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear (SMDs = 0.12–1.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2004; van Hemert et al., 2011)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For those cases in which there is an overall sex difference such that females score higher on Negative emotions, higher living conditions seem to predict that they express and feel even more negative emotions (e.g., guilt and crying) compared with men (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For Positive emotions, women have higher levels of happiness and smile more (SMD = 0.10; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Finally, no clear pattern can be seen for measures for which there is no sex difference (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These differences are influenced by contextual factors; differences between boys and girls are almost absent when the children interact with parents, but become significant during interaction with unfamiliar adults or peers (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“whereas males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness (SMDs = 0.07–0.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, for the single study analyzed in the new analyses, in which females scored higher (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), sex differences were smaller in countries with higher living conditions.”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“if anything, an opposite pattern seems to be present for self-reported anger and brow furrowing, that is, there are larger sex differences in countries with higher living conditions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“In low-risk children, a small female advantage in social affect, e.g., more expression of positive emotions with unfamiliar adults, can be detected [41].”
From Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study (2015) · cites this paper as [41]
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“Boys may be more inclined than girls to express anger-related emotions with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough-and-tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfam…”
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BackgroundMethods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
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Wang, C., Guo, J., Han, X., & You, J. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108512 · Cited by 2
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Thomassin, K., Jacob, M. L., West, K. B., Hale, M. E., & Suveg, C. M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-14080-8_13 · Cited by 1
An Examination of the Mental Health Status of Canadian Children and Youth with Disabilities
O’Rourke, R. H., Brown, D. M. Y., Ginis, K. A. M., & Arbour‐Nicitopoulos, K. P. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health · doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2022-033 · Cited by 1
A Research on Sex Education Environment in Preschool Children Families
Li, J., & Yang, M. (2022) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2022.1310205 · Cited by 1
Lyakso, E. E., Frolova, O. V., Grigoriev, A. S., et al. (2022) · Experimental Psychology (Russia) · doi:10.17759/exppsy.2022150310 · Cited by 1
“На распознавание эмоционального состояния человека оказывают влияние социокультурные особенности [5; 12], визуальный материал (статические и/или динамические изображения) [4; 31], гендерные и возрастные различия в выражении эмоций [9].”
Wu, W., Lu, F. L., Tang, C., Chao, F., & Yu, T. (2023) · Journal of Nursing Scholarship · doi:10.1111/jnu.12908 · Cited by 1
Sex and age differences in facial emotions expressions measured by artificial intelligence
Gablíková, M., & Halamová, J. (2021) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.24425/ppb.2021.136819 · Cited by 1
“Such conclusions are confirmed by the results of a meta-analysis of children's emotions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
ResultBeyazoglu, K. H., Komac, Ž., & Fekonja, U. (2023) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2023.2282359 · Cited by 1
Gómez‐Baya, D., Morales-Marente, E., Grasmeijer, A. J., López-Bermúdez, E., & Berjano, R. M. (2024) · Fagbokforlaget eBooks · doi:10.55669/oa311004 · Cited by 1
Sex differences in patient-reported outcome measure of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia
Vila‐Badia, R., Ochoa, S., Fábrega‐Ruz, J., González-Caballero, J. L., Romero, C., Cid, J., Capell, E. F., Salvador‐Carulla, L., & Moreno‐Küstner, B. (2024) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-024-01472-y · Cited by 1
“A tentative explanation for these results could be that men are less emotionally expressive and less emotional self-awareness than women, and this can lead to them not expressing and report their symptoms (Chaplin and Aldao 2013; Prentice et al. 2022).”
Universal Screening for Student Mental Health: Selection of Norming Group
Plant, M. Z., & Clark, K. N. (2024) · Assessment for Effective Intervention · doi:10.1177/15345084241265632 · Cited by 2
“Previous literature has indicated that girls have higher internalizing problems and boys have higher externalizing problems (Bitsko et al., 2022; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Lewinsohn et al., 1998).”
Is Shame a Female Emotion? The Role of Social Power
Maire, H., Charafeddine, R., & der Henst, J. V. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54593-1_2 · Cited by 2
González, O. D.-J., Marshall-Beaucoup, S., Tugault-Lafleur, C. N., & Mâsse, L. C. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107715 · Cited by 1
“This opposite (but non-significant) trend within genders may stem from implicit social rules that encourage girls, but not boys, to verbalize their feelings, particularly internalized emotions such as anxiety (Chaplin, 2015; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundMagalhães, S., Carvalheiras, C., Ribeiro, C., Francisco, C., Mourisco, C., Leal, T., & Limpo, T. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14111155 · Cited by 1
“This advantage of girls over boys seems to be explained by how females respond to psychological distress, as it is culturally expected for girls to express their emotions more openly than boys, who seem more prone to suppress them [40].”
Gender Differences in Acoustic-Perceptual Mapping of Emotional Prosody in Mandarin Speech
Wang, X., Fang, R., & Ding, H. (2024) · Corpus-based Studies across Humanities · doi:10.1515/csh-2024-0025 · Cited by 1
Bulgarelli, D., Sala, M. N., Ragaglia, B., & Molina, P. (2025) · RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.3280/rip2024oa18947 · Cited by 2
Compassion Scale: factor structure and scale validation in Hong Kong adolescents
Ngai, S. S., Cheung, C., Ng, Y., Guo, H., Du, H.-L., Chen, C., Wong, L., Zhou, Q., & Pang, W.-T. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1508402 · Cited by 1
Bowe, A. K., Urban, M., Staines, A. S., & Murray, D. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1341797 · Cited by 1
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“In terms of emotional experiences and competencies, research suggests that female children and adolescents tend to exhibit more internalising behaviours than their male counterparts (Chaplin and Aldao 2013; Ihle and Esser 2002; Maurice-Stam et al. 2018; Wagner et al. 2017).”
Which Children are at Risk of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems?
Jaratsit, S., Rittirong, J., & Nitnara, P. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03059-2 · Cited by 1
“Girls exhibited higher levels of emotional problems, consistent with previous research indicating that females tend to express more emotions, including empathy and sympathy (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Mano et al., 2017; Zahn-Waxler, 2001).”
Schiele, T., Mues, A., Jiménez, M. V., & Niklas, F. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2491538 · Cited by 1
“Gen-dered stereotypes are observed early on and usually demand more positive socioemotional competencies from girls than boys, such as sympathy or empathy (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), as girls and women are socie-tally expected to behave more communal than boys and men (Hannover, 2011).”
Do parenting behaviors impact adolescent alcohol use differently among male and female adolescents?
King, K. A., Chaliawala, K. S., & Vidourek, R. A. (2025) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659891.2025.2502073 · Cited by 1
“Parenting practices have a pronounced effect on possible sex differences in socioemotional and behavioral development among youth (Bandura, 1969; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Tilton‐Weaver, L. C., Marshall, S. K., & Svensson, Y. (2025) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12516 · Cited by 2
“By comparison, expressions of anger are generally considered less appropriate for girls than for boys (Chaplin and Aldao 2013).”
Predicting the Emotions of Brothers and Sisters of Individuals with Down Syndrome/Autism.
Alon, R. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-06979-6 · Cited by 1
Amoukhteh, S., Hartley, I., Daker, R. J., Green, A. E., & Viskontas, I. V. (2025) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2025.2530893 · Cited by 1
“Past studies have consistently reported higher levels of trait anxiety in females as compared to males (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McLean & Anderson, 2009).”
Kufoof, T., Saad, R. K., Al-Ghawanmeh, R., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2025.1630919 · Cited by 1
“These fi ndings align with existing literature indicating that boys are more prone to externalizing behaviors such as aggression and hyperactivity, while girls typically exhibit more prosocial tendencies (22).”
A Way With Words: Do Clinicians Talk Differently When Assessing Autism in Boys vs Girls?
Parish‐Morris, J., & Cola, M. (2025) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2025.09.005 · Cited by 1
The effect of paraben exposure on cognitive and behavioral outcomes in school children
González-Palacios, P., Ramírez, V., González-Domenech, P., Monteagudo, C., Baca, M. Á., Rivas, A., & Zafra‐Gómez, A. (2025) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.180434 · Cited by 1
Banerjee, R. A., Wright, M. L., & Bianco, F. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0332297 · Cited by 1
“While this was not a substantive focus of the present work, considerable research in the past has focused on gender differences in relation to children’s emotional profiles in the social world [55].”
Li, A. (2025) · Chinese Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1177/2057150x251382369 · Cited by 1
“The disruption of this bond can lead to greater emotional stress for girls, negatively affecting their cognitive engagement and development (Chaplin and Aldao, 2013).”
Parental Warmth and Emotion Reactivity in the Brain: Differences by Assigned Sex
McClellan, L. S., Kisner, M. A., Thompson, J. C., Babaeian, S., Keith, J. M., & Chaplin, T. M. (2025) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.70031 · Cited by 1
“…boys compared to assigned girls (Gullone et al. 2010; Zimmermann and Iwanski 2014), which is likely due at least in part to gendered societal expectations regarding emotion expression (i.e., assigned boys are socialized to be less emotionally expressive than assigned girls; Chaplin et al. 2013).”
Self-citationZhang, X., Ma, L., Kuan, C., Chi, X., Cao, Y., Wang, S., Yan, C., & Nelson, W. M. (2025) · Pediatric Investigation · doi:10.1002/ped4.70024 · Cited by 1
“23,29 These developmental divergences necessitate examining ChIA’s measurement invariance across age and sex groups.”
Lippolis, M., Matarrelli, B., Carraturo, G., Vuust, P., & Brattico, E. (2025) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356251368701 · Cited by 2
“Moreover, our study investigates potential differences in empathy based on gender, a factor that was already found to be associated with variations in emotional and social development (for a review, see Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Rose & Rudolph, 2006).”
Su, Z., & Ding, R. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02274-w · Cited by 1
Who’s watching matters: How audience familiarity shapes children’s self-drawings of pride
Brechet, C., Arnal, F., Deville, O., Filali, R., Mara, J., & Paganon, J. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254251388221 · Cited by 1
Lomas, J. E., Stough, C. K. K., & Downey, L. A. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251399175 · Cited by 1
The paradox of privilege: The downsides of masculinity for men and organizations
Martin, A. E., & Yoo, S. J. (2025) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2025.100226 · Cited by 3
Yan, M., Kummerfeld, E., Rawls, E., Cullen, K. R., & Klimes‐Dougan, B. (2025) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.70068 · Cited by 1
“Additionally, there is a trend such that females are more likely to report symptoms of internalizing psychopathology while males are more likely to report symptoms of externalizing psychopathology (Chaplin and Aldao 2013).”
Saquib, J., Kalou, Y., Al-Rshide, A., Al-Akhfash, G., Al-Durrah, K. K., Al-Enazi, M., Al-Chalati, S., Al-Khalaf, T., Alsaleh, S., Almazrou, A., et al. (2025) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2025.2607662 · Cited by 1
Asanjarani, F., Esfahani, M. S., Bolghan‐Abadi, M., & Aghaei, K. (2026) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-025-00414-4 · Cited by 1
“Meta-analytic evidence suggests that females, from late childhood onward, tend to display greater empathy, prosocial orientation, and emotional expressiveness across diverse cultural contexts (Eisenberg et al., 2021; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Geng, Z., Huang, R., Zeng, B., & Huang, J. (2026) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-025-01062-1 · Cited by 1
“In contrast, boys are often encouraged to value independence and assertiveness, while expressions of emotional vulnerability (e.g., sadness and fear) may be discouraged or even sanctioned (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Lee et al., 2025).”
Piombo, M. A., Grutta, S. L., Epifanio, M. S., Trombini, E., & Andrei, F. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106483 · Cited by 1
Qin, G., & Wang, D. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09082-w · Cited by 1
“Gender, as a commonly recognized factor influencing individuals’ socioemotional functioning, was also included as a control variable (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Fundamental social motives in men and women across 42 societies
Ko, A., Kenrick, D. T., Becker, D. V., & Varnum, M. E. W. (2026) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.1970 · Cited by 2
Liao, L., Wang, F., Zhang, X., & Liu, J. (2026) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2026.101251 · Cited by 1
Li, J., & Yang, C. (2026) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-026-01434-1 · Cited by 1
“First, girls typically exhibit earlier development of adaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, during adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), which may enable them to disen-gage from maladaptive responses more efficiently after an initial period of distress.”
Sotardi, V. A., Fang, J., & Ren, X. (2026) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-026-10345-y · Cited by 2
“Research indicates gender differences in emotion regulation, stress responses, and exposure to peer aggression, reflecting socialisation and norms around emotional expression (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Hosozawa et al., 2021).”
Wang, L., Sun, X., Zhao, J., & ZHANG, W. (2026) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316261436435 · Cited by 1
Boys Don’t Cry? Rethinking Emotions and Manhood Through SEL in Pakistani Secondary Schools
Shah, R., Shah, S. A., & Sadia, S. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16030458 · Cited by 2
“…on emotion socialization demonstrate that from early childhood, boys receive less encouragement than girls to express internalizing emotions such as sadness and fear, while externalizing expressions such as anger are more frequently tolerated or even reinforced for boys (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Zhao, H., Sun, M., Zhu, X., & Li, W. (2026) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-026-07017-1 · Cited by 2
“Gender constitutes a further gap: despite documented socialization differences (Chaplin and Aldao, 2013), whether boys ’ stronger pressures toward self-reliance render them differentially vulnerable has been overlooked.”
InfluentialShum, C., Dockray, S., Gallagher, S., & McMahon, J. (2026) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2026.101548 · Cited by 2
Zhu, J., Jiang, Q., Zhang, F., Liu, H., Yu, S., Sun, J., Zhao, Z., Liu, L., & Yuan, L. (2026) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/85371 · Cited by 1
“This pattern likely does not reflect absolute differences in incidence rates but rather profoundly reveals gendered expressions of risk behaviors and sociocultural cognitive biases [51,52].”
Hofreiter, S., Kerschreiter, R., & Spörrle, M. (2026) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2026.2645875 · Cited by 1
Zhang, J., Su, Y., & Yang, L. (2026) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2026.2653970 · Cited by 1
İkiz, S., & Gürsoy, F. (2026) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-026-01125-x · Cited by 1
“In the process of social interactions, expressing one’s emotions in various ways and managing these emotions had important and decisive effects on the individual’s relationships with other people (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Wang, X., & Wang, X. (2026) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-026-02029-z · Cited by 1
Vélaz-Lorente, Í., Barquero-Ruiz, C., Gonzalez-Artetxe, A., & Arcos, A. L. (2026) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2026.2690033 · Cited by 1
Adolescent Friend Emotion Socialization: Does It Matter Which Emotion You Feel?
Hale, M. E., Zeman, J. L., Borowski, S. K., & Price, N. N. (2026) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.70076 · Cited by 1
Metzer, N. V. (2014) · Scholarship@Western (Western University) · Cited by 1
Brewer, M. D., & Stonecash, J. M. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190239817.003.0005 · Cited by 1
Horner, C. G., & Akiva, T. (2019) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12478 · Cited by 1
Three Pathways From Anger Dysregulation to Lower Social Status Among Chinese Boys
Zhang, H., Stapleton, C. M., Hsueh, Y., & Cohen, R. (2019) · Interpersona An International Journal on Personal Relationships · doi:10.5964/ijpr.v13i2.380 · Cited by 1
“In Western cultures, boys typically experience more externalizing behavior problems than girls, and girls experience more internalizing problems than boys (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundGender and Adolescent Development across Cultures
Qu, Y., Zhang, S., Kalindi, S. C., Yang, B., & Wang, Q. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.010 · Cited by 1
Sex and Gender in Psychopathology
Lefler, E. K., & Hartung, C. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.043 · Cited by 1
French versus English: A sociolinguistic study of Moroccans’ foreign language attitudinal tendencies
Seddik, M. (2020) · Macrolinguistics · doi:10.26478/ja2020.8.13.8 · Cited by 1
Christiansen, H., Hirsch, O., Beheshti, A., & Chavanon, M. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01842-0 · Cited by 1
Brechet, C., Creissen, S., D’audigier, L., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254211031638 · Cited by 1
“Indeed, there is a large body of research showing that woman tend to be better than man at expressing and decoding facial emotional cues (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McClure, 2000).”
BackgroundBAĞCI, S., & Seven, S. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Research Review · doi:10.24331/ijere.953330 · Cited by 1
“This proves that gender is an important factor in the socialization process (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Chaplin et al., 2005).”
BackgroundZehtner, R. I., Baeurle, C. L., Walter, B., et al. (2021) · Psychological Test Adaptation and Development · doi:10.1027/2698-1866/a000015 · Cited by 1
Factors in the neurodevelopment of negative urgency: Findings from a community-dwelling sample
Evans, C. L., Sawyer, K. S., Levy, S. A., Conklin, J. P., McDonough, E., & Gansler, D. A. (2022) · Brain and Neuroscience Advances · doi:10.1177/23982128221079548 · Cited by 1
“Socialisation and sociocultural factors may contribute to gender differences of emotional expression, with girls demonstrating more internalising emotions than boys (Chaplin and Aldao, 2013).”
BackgroundWagner, K. M., Sanchez, D., & Valdez, C. R. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01404-w · Cited by 1
Vocabulario emocional y casos de cyberbullying en alumnado universitario
Baradad, J. T., Priego-Ojeda, M., Garcia-Blanc, N., & Ros‐Morente, A. (2022) · Tendencias pedagógicas/Tendencias pedagógicas · doi:10.15366/tp2022.39.016 · Cited by 1
Does the way we measure shame create a gender difference?
Herring, E. (2018) · Assessment and Development Matters · doi:10.53841/bpsadm.2018.10.1.2 · Cited by 2
“Meta-analyses by Else-Quest et al. (2012), and Chaplin and Aldao (2013), concluded that girls experience more shame than boys, although the cause of this has not been conclusively demonstrated.”
MethodLu, L., & Wang, L. (2023) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.644 · Cited by 1
ZhiXiong, Y., He, Z., Zou, X., Han, J., Jiang, L., Lan, Z., Cai, Y., Feng, R., Su, X.-Q., XiaoHui, H., et al. (2024) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/tb-2023-1241 · Cited by 1
Toxic Masculinity, Self Esteem and Mental Health among Young Adult Males
Ms. Haritha, H. (2024) · International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology · doi:10.22214/ijraset.2024.59857 · Cited by 1
Carreiras, D., Castilho, P., & Cunha, M. I. V. A. (2023) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2023.2289607 · Cited by 3
Kleshnev, E. A., Frolova, O. V., & Lyakso, E. E. (2024) · Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology · doi:10.1134/s0022093024020236 · Cited by 1
“Analysis of data from 166 works [30] showed intersex differences in the display of emotions.”
Olurin, T. K., Wiium, N., Ariyo, A. M., & Eni-Olorunda, T. J. (2024) · Fagbokforlaget eBooks · doi:10.55669/oa311006 · Cited by 1
D’Amico, A., Ruggieri, M., & Geraci, A. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112676 · Cited by 1
The significance of emotional intelligence in pediatric dentistry
Georgieva, M., & Bakardjiev, P. (2024) · Journal of Medical and Dental Practice · doi:10.18044/medinform.2024111.1768 · Cited by 1
Comparing Correlates of Quality of Life in Borderline and Average Intellectual Functioning
Singh, G. K., Gupta, A., & Mehta, S. (2024) · Annals of Indian Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/aip.aip_176_22 · Cited by 1
Beltz, A. M., Portengen, C. M., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2024) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12520 · Cited by 1
“…activities and verbal interactions that facilitate group harmony (Maccoby, 1986; Moller et al., 1992); positive emotionality, including kindness and consideration, is also more frequent in interactions among girls than among boys (Beltz et al., 2013; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fabes & Eisenberg, 1998).”
Zhang, M., Huang, N., Hu, B., Chen, C., & Guo, J. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06696-w · Cited by 1
“Boys, on the contrary, have weaker socioemotional strengths such that reappraisal may not be successful in reducing depressive symptoms (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Zheng, T.-X., Zhou, H., Ni, Z.-H., Zou, L.-Q., & Yan, C. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03933-2 · Cited by 2
“In contrast to girls, boys typically show a lower inclination to openly express distress or seek social support, often concealing their emotions (Chaplin and Aldao 2013), potentially canceling out other protective factors.”
Adams, E., Murray, K., & Christian, H. E. (2024) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-024-03721-3 · Cited by 1
“36 Thus, the purpose of this study was to use longitudinal data on dog ownership and changing dog ownership to investigate their effects on young children ’ s social-emotional development.”
Seely, H. D., & Mickelson, K. D. (2025) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.13142 · Cited by 1
The Influence of Gratitude on Coping Strategies: Indirect Effect Testing from Longitudinal Data
Zhang, J., & Guo, J. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2025.058022 · Cited by 2
Facial emotion recognition in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder
Farzan, M., Rezaei, M., Mottaghi, S., & Rezapour-Mirsaleh, Y. (2025) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-025-00523-z · Cited by 2
“In this regard, previous studies [6, 14, 38, 47] have also shown that girls obtain higher scores in emotion recognition than boys in categorization tasks.”
Hua, Y., & Miao, X. (2025) · Applied & Educational Psychology · doi:10.23977/appep.2025.060124 · Cited by 1
“Second, men tend to suppress emotions [47,48] , increasing vulnerability to emotional exhaustion under stress, while women employ expressive strategies (e.g., communication, leisure activities) to activate social support networks, thereby mitigating stress [47] .”
Waugh, W. E. (2017) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 1
Depression among children with and without Learning Disability
Kumar, G. Y. Y., & D’Souza, L. (2018) · International Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.5958/2320-6233.2018.00007.x · Cited by 1
Functional status of the central nervous system in girls aged 16-18 years old
Босенко, А., Bobro, O., Topchii, M., et al. (2019) · Health Problems of Civilization · doi:10.5114/hpc.2019.88301 · Cited by 1
“The study of indicators of sensorimotor reactions is used in neurophysiological studies of different population segments [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].”
BackgroundStudent Emotions Due to Parental Divorce/ Emosi Pelajar Akibat Perceraian Ibubapa
Mohammad, S. N. S., & Masroom, M. N. (2019) · Sains Humanika · doi:10.11113/sh.v12n1.1635 · Cited by 1
Halpern, D. F., Flores-Mendoza, C. E., & Rindermann, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.014 · Cited by 2
Ndu, I. K., Osuorah, C. D. I., Nwaneli, E. I., Ekwochi, U., Asinobi, I. N., Iloh, K. K., & Nduagubam, O. C. (2020) · Asian Journal of Social Health and Behavior · doi:10.4103/shb.shb_47_20 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chaplin, Tara M.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 139
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 735-765
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC3597769
- OpenAlex
- W2156233592
- Cited by
- 1,247
- References
- 309
- Citations by year
- 2026: 153 · 2025: 161 · 2024: 133 · 2023: 123 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 7
- FWCI
- 24.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (K01DA024759)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, emotional expression, children, facial expressions, vocal expression, behavioral expression, positive emotions, age differences, interpersonal context, parent-child interaction, peer interaction, adolescence, middle childhood, toddlerhood
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Analysis of Variance, Child, Child Behavior, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Infant, Male, Models, Theoretical, Regression Analysis, Sex Characteristics, Socialization, Adolescent Development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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