The DOI matches its Crossref record; 289 of the 309 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 59 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review.
Open accessAbstract
Emotion expression is an important feature of healthy child development that has been found to show gender differences. However, there has been no empirical review of the literature on gender and facial, vocal, and behavioral expressions of different types of emotions in children. The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy through adolescence. We analyzed 555 effect sizes from 166 studies with a total of 21,709 participants. Significant but very small gender differences were found overall, with girls showing more positive emotions (g = -.08) and internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = -.10) than boys, and boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g = .09) than girls. Notably, gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence, underscoring the importance of contextual factors in gender differences. Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced with increasing age, with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = -.20) and adolescence (g = -.28). Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = -.27). Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions). Our findings of gender differences in emotion expression in specific contexts have important implications for gender differences in children's healthy and maladaptive development.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
114 Own result · 30 Own interpretation · 28 Sources not found · 14 No full text of the sources · 13 Own method · 6 No basis given · 5 Not checked yet
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = −.20) and adolescence (g = −.28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Significant, but very small, gender differences were found overall”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = −.10) than boys”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = −.27).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 103
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Probably not a substantial claim. 27
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls showing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the peer and alone contexts (Q [1, 21] = 7.80, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the alone contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up comparisons showed a significant difference in effect sizes between the negative and neutral tasks (Q [1, 88] = 7.53, p < .008), with stronger gender differences (girls > boys) in the neutral than the negative tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, the effect size for non-demand tasks was not significant, but the effect size was significant and of small magnitude for demand tasks (g = .17, boys > girls).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up comparisons for externalizing emotion expressions showed significant differences in the strength of effect sizes between the adolescent and infant groups (Q [1, 22] = 19.55, p < .0001), the adolescent and toddler/preschool groups (Q [1, 50] = 43.18, p < .0001), and the adolescent and child groups (Q [1, 22] = 31.10, p < .0001), with negative (girls > boys) effect sizes in the adolescent”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, there were significant differences in effect sizes between the alone and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 33] = 9.24, p < .008), with stronger gender differences in externalizing emotion expressions (boys > girls) when alone than when with unfamiliar adults.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For negative emotion expressions, age and context remained significant (β = .25, p < .05 for infant vs. toddler/preschool; β = .51, p < .0001 for infant vs. adolescent; β = −.30, p < .01 for parent vs. peer context).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Comparing the Relative Contribution of the Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing and general negative emotion expressions, significant small to medium and small effect sizes were found in the peer context (for externalizing: mean g = .29, for negative: mean g = .19, boys > girls), but not in the parental or non-parental adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“fear and sympathy expressions showed significant very small to small effect sizes and shame showed a significant medium effect size, with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“anger expressions showed a significant very small effect size with boys higher than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, a significant small to medium effect size was found for externalizing emotion expressions when alone (mean g = .28, boys > girls).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For externalizing emotion expressions, gender differences were not present in infancy, but significant positive small effect sizes emerged in the toddler/preschool age group (mean g = .17, boys > girls) and remained in the childhood age group (mean g = .13, boys > girls). Unexpectedly, there was a significant negative (girls > boys) small to medium effect size for externalizing emotion expressions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, for internalizing emotion expressions, a significant small-magnitude effect size was found with parents (mean g = −.12, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were significant very small effect sizes for non-demand studies (for internalizing- g = −.10, girls > boys, for externalizing- g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for demand studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, the effect size for the positive emotion expression category was significant and of very small magnitude in non-demand tasks (mean g = −.07, girls > boys) and was significant and of small to medium magnitude in studies with a demand that children mask their negative emotions (mean g = −.27, girls > boys).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“only positive emotion-unspecified showed a significant (small) effect size with girls showing more emotion than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for internalizing emotions of −.10, indicating greater internalizing emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interest expressions showed a significant small effect size, with girls higher than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for positive emotions of −.08, indicating greater positive emotion expression for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a significant, yet very small mean effect size (g) for externalizing emotions of .09, indicating greater externalizing emotion expressions for boys than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive emotion expressions, consistent with hypotheses, gender differences were not present in infancy and the toddler/preschool period, but significant small and small to medium effect sizes emerged in the childhood age group (mean g = −.20, girls > boys), and remained in adolescence (mean g = −.28, girls > boys)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, for general negative emotion expressions, there was a significant small-magnitude positive (boys > girls) effect size in the childhood age group (mean g = .14) and then a significant negative (girls > boys) medium effect size emerged in the adolescent group (mean g = −.35).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 3, for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions, there were very small to small magnitude significant effect sizes for the negative tasks (for internalizing emotions, mean g = −.13, girls > boys; for externalizing emotions, mean g = .09, boys > girls), but no significant effect sizes for the positive or neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“contempt expressions showed a significant small to medium effect size with girls showing higher contempt than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 1: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category and in Specific Emotion Expressions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the positive emotion category, the mean effect size was significant for the neutral task only (mean g = −.23, small magnitude).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up Bonferroni-corrected comparisons for externalizing expressions showed significant differences in effect sizes between the peer and parent contexts (Q [1, 41] = 7.15, p < .008) and between the peer and non-parental adult contexts (Q [1, 34] = 10.73, p < .008), with larger gender differences (boys > girls) in the peer than the parent and unfamiliar adult contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For internalizing emotion expressions, there were significant small-magnitude effect sizes in infancy through childhood age groups (for infancy: mean g = −.14, for preschool/toddler, mean g = −.09, for childhood, mean g = −.12, girls > boys), but not in the adolescent age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For positive and internalizing emotion expression categories, significant small-magnitude effect sizes were found with a non-parental adult (for positive: mean g = −.12, for internalizing: mean g = −.16, girls > boys), but not with peers or when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and boys expressing more externalizing emotions such as anger than girls (g = .09)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfamiliar adult.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the internalizing emotion expressions, all were in the direction of girls greater than boys, with two (fear and sympathy) showing significant very small to small effect sizes (g’s = −.10, −.13) and one (shame) showing a significant medium effect size (g = −.56).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, joy at another’s expense (e.g., gleeful taunting of others) showed a significant small to medium effect size favoring boys (g = .29), which is in contrast to findings for the positive emotion expression category, with greater positive emotion expressions for girls than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but emerged by the toddler/preschool period (for externalizing emotion expressions) and in childhood (for general negative and positive emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“contrary to prediction, we found that gender differences in many of the emotion expressions either diminished (for internalizing emotion expressions) or reversed direction (for externalizing and negative emotion expressions) in adolescence (although gender differences were strong for positive emotion expressions at this age)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Unexpectedly, and contrary to past meta-analytic findings (Hall & Halberstadt, 1986), we found significant gender differences in positive emotion expressions only in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hall & Halberstadt, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences typically did not emerge when children were observed with a parent (except for internalizing emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences in the expression of externalizing emotions (with boys > girls) were virtually non-existent when with parents (g = .01), but were of small to medium magnitude with peers (g = .29) and when alone (g = .28)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes for positive emotion expressions (with girls greater than boys) and general negative emotion expressions (with girls lower than boys) were larger in situations with a demand to minimize or mask negative emotion (g = − .27 for positive emotion; g = .17 for negative emotion) than in situations without this demand (g = −.07 for positive; g = .01 for negative).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Demand to Change Emotion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the externalizing emotion expressions, only anger showed a significant very small effect size favoring boys (g = .10), suggesting that gender differences with boys greater than girls in externalizing emotion expressions may be driven by differences in anger.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with girls expressing more positive emotions (g = −.08)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and more internalizing negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety (g = −.10) than boys”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences in positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions were not present in infancy, but were of small to medium magnitude in middle childhood and adolescence (with g’s ranging from .13 to .35)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“gender differences were not found in infancy for positive, externalizing, and general negative emotion expressions (although they were found for internalizing emotion expressions)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, there was not a significant gender difference for the three effect sizes for pride expressions, although the effect size of g = .42 favored boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found very small to small magnitude effect sizes favoring girls for all of the specific emotion expressions in the positive emotion category (happiness, surprise, and positive emotion-unspecified), although the only effect size that reached significance was for positive emotion-unspecified (g = −.15).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls also expressed more internalizing emotions (such as sadness, fear, sympathy, and shame) than boys, particularly in negative situations and when with an unfamiliar adult.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls showed greater positive emotion expressions than boys and this gender difference became increasingly evident as the age of the research participants increased into adolescence and in situations with an unfamiliar adult and in which there was social pressure to mask negative emotions by appearing cheery.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings suggest that there are small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions, with larger gender differences emerging at certain ages and in certain contexts.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys, in contrast, showed greater externalizing emotion expressions, particularly anger expressions, in the toddler/preschool and middle childhood periods, in negative situations, and when with peers or alone, which could contribute to boys’ greater risk for conduct problems.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003) meta-analysis of adults and adolescents found significant gender differences (females higher than males) in smiling behavior (d = −.41).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites LaFrance and colleagues’ (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Else-Quest and colleagues (2006) found a small but significant effect size for fearfulness (but no significant differences for sadness or anger), with higher fearfulness in girls than boys (d = −.12).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They did not find a significant overall gender difference for smiling behavior”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Else-Quest and colleagues (2006)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Maccoby and Jacklin reported no consistent gender differences for children’s expression of fear.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Maccoby and Jacklin
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Buck (1977) found that boys’ emotional expressions decreased with age from age 4–6 whereas girls’ expressions did not.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Theories of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Buck (1977) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They reported that infant boys and girls were similar in their frustration reactions”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“girls’ negative emotional outbursts diminished with age more than boys’. As a result, toddler (18 month old) boys showed greater frustration reactions than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Previous Reviews of Gender and Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in early childhood, boys show less language ability and inhibitory control than girls (see Brody, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > General Theories of Gender Differences
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brody, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, as predicted, gender differences were mostly larger when children were with unfamiliar adults (for internalizing emotions) or with peers (for externalizing and negative emotions) than when they were with parents. Unexpectedly, the gender difference was also present for externalizing emotion expressions when alone.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, as predicted, gender-role consistent gender differences in positive and general negative emotion expressions were stronger in demand situations. This prediction did not hold true for internalizing and externalizing emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirty-eight articles (23%) were double-coded by a trained research assistant and were checked for inter-rater reliability for the moderator variables.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Study Coding
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Random effects models produce larger standard errors, therefore reducing the probability of Type I errors (for a review of risks resulting when not using random effects models when appropriate, see Field, 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Random Effects Models
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Field, 2003 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“women have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men- Kring & Gordon, 1998”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Theories of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kring & Gordon, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As hypothesized, gender-role consistent gender differences in emotion expression were most pronounced in tasks designed to elicit negative emotions, at least for internalizing and externalizing emotions. Unexpectedly, gender differences in positive emotion expressions were largest in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, in this meta-analysis, the Kendall’s Tau values were non-significant (for positive emotion expression: τb= −.10, ns; for internalizing: τb= −.02, ns; for externalizing: τb= .12, ns; for general negative: τb= −.01, ns)”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Publication Bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicated that the main effect of age on gender differences in emotion expressions might be driven by a developmental transition with: 1) girls showing greater positive emotion than boys by adolescence and 2) boys showing more externalizing and negative emotions than girls prior to adolescence but girls showing greater externalizing and negative emotions than boys in adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Hypothesis 2: Gender Differences in Each Emotion Expression Category by Moderators
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Kappa statistics were .91 for age, .79 for emotion, .72 for task valence, and .71 for interpersonal context (mean κ = .81), indicating good reliability.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Study Coding
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“girls’ greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter), consistent with female gender roles, and b) girls’ greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Moderators of Gender Differences in Emotion Expression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Davis, 1995 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Most studies provided multiple effect sizes, therefore violating the assumption of independence of meta-analyses (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Effect Size Calculations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lipsey & Wilson, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Boys’ greater tendency to show joy at another’s expense may lead to risk for conduct problems as this form of positive emotion is callous and potentially a form of aggression (e.g., Chaplin et al., 2005; Frick, Cornell, Barry, Bodin, & Dane, 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Frick et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“With parents, at least among children who are not in high risk conditions, children may feel free to express a full range of emotions, including gender-role inconsistent emotions (Zeman & Garber, 1996). This freedom to express any emotions would then lead to smaller gender differences in emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Zeman & Garber, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The finding that girls begin to express more externalizing emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to be more expressive of emotions overall than boys as they reach adolescence. It may also reflect a recent change in gender roles for adolescent girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brown, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We would need 146 more positive, 109 more internalizing, and 62.4 externalizing effect sizes, or about twice as many effect sizes as are in the present meta-analysis.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Publication Bias
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to facilitating healthy development, a well-developed sense of assertiveness and self-efficacy may also protect boys against depression and anxiety, contributing to boys’ lower rates of these disorders.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Negative tasks may elicit greater amounts of sadness, fear, anger, and other internalizing and externalizing emotions, resulting in a greater range and greater ability to detect gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“when interacting with individuals whom children do not know as well, children may regulate their emotion expressions to conform to societal gender roles (La France et al., 2003), leading to greater gender differences in emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites La France et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ greater propensity to display positive emotion when interacting with unfamiliar adults, and their greater tendency to mask negative emotions when the situation calls for it (such as when receiving a disappointing gift), may contribute to and be influenced by their intention and ability to please adults and to behave in prosocial ways.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that the many changes of adolescence, including physiological (e.g., puberty) and social (e.g., at school and in the peer group), bring about an increase in internalizing emotion expressions for both boys and girls, attenuating gender differences for this emotion category.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, girls may both express and experience higher shame than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > The Role of Specific Emotions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference in externalizing emotion expressions (with boys > girls) when alone could reflect a tendency for boys to experience more externalizing emotions than girls.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Boys’ modulated anger expressions may facilitate the development of assertiveness, persistence, and self-efficacy.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In addition, girls’ greater sadness, sympathy/empathic concern, and shame expressions, if taken to an extreme, may be a risk for depression (e.g., Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999) and may contribute to girls’ increases in depression in adolescence (Hankin, et al., 1998).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hankin et al., 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ more frequent displays of positive emotions may reflect their propensity to engage new persons socially, to foster interpersonal harmony, and to appease adults.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An alternate explanation for our findings could be that girls’ experience in reducing anger and other externalizing emotion expressions when with peers and non-parental adults, at least prior to adolescence, carries over to situations when girls are alone, leading to gender differences in the alone context with girls lower than boys in externalizing expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is notable that boys show greater externalizing (and general negative) emotions than girls when with peers as this may help them to negotiate peer relationships in an assertive manner and could protect them against succumbing to peer pressure.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If true, this would suggest that boys may indeed have good regulatory abilities for externalizing emotions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that positive and negative tasks may not elicit gender differences for joy and other positive emotion expressions and instead these are found in neutral tasks.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Valence of Task
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which may further suggest that gender differences in some emotion expressions may begin quite early and may be either innate or due to very early socialization responses of caregivers.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may suggest that girls are better at regulating emotion to meet social demands and/or that they are more motivated than boys to cover up negative emotions with positive emotions in order to protect another’s feelings”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Demand to Change Emotion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ greater tendency to express positive emotions may contribute to and be influenced by their greater prosocial behavior than boys.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Boys’ greater rates of externalizing emotion expressions such as anger in the toddler/preschool years may be one contributing factor to the higher rates of behavior problems in boys, a gender difference that notably appears around the toddler/preschool age (Keenan & Shaw, 1997).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keenan & Shaw, 1997 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For those adolescent girls who account for the gender difference in externalizing emotions expression, there may be risk. For example, alcohol and drug use, which are on the rise in adolescent girls (Amaro et al., 2001), have been linked to the use of anger to cope with stressors (Wills, DuHamel, & Vaccaro, 1995).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Amaro et al., 2001 source
- Not matchedcites Wills et al., 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“And, as with positive emotions, an excessive tendency to display internalizing emotions may be a risk factor for certain psychological problems. For example, if one responds to stress by experiencing and expressing high levels of fear and anxiety, this pattern may lead to risk for the development of anxiety disorders, several of which are more common for girls than boys (Ollendick & Yule, 1990).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ollendick & Yule, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Boys may be more inclined to express anger-related emotions than girls with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough and tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Interpersonal Context
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rose & Rudolph, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“At the same time, girls’ (and women’s) efforts to be cheery, even when this cheeriness is unfelt (as in the “demand” tasks) may also confer risk (Chaplin & Cole, 2005; Keenan & Hipwell, 2005; Zahn-Waxler, Cole, & Barrett, 1991). If girls attempt to appear cheerful even when they are not, they may internalize feelings of distress rather than express them to achieve their goals for well-being, which”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Implications for Well-being
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chaplin & Cole, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keenan & Hipwell, 2005 source
- Not matchedcites Zahn-Waxler et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the gender difference found in infancy for internalizing emotion expressions may not reflect gender differences in the internal experience of internalizing emotions per se, but instead may reflect differences in negative emotions more generally or differences in some other non-emotional state.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Age
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls’ patterns of emotion expression may contribute to their greater prosociality than boys. However, this pattern could also confer risk that increases girls’ likelihood of developing symptoms of depression and anxiety.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“gender differences have been found for some traits in adulthood, with women reporting somewhat greater anxiety/neuroticism and gregariousness than men and men reporting greater assertiveness than women (Feingold, 1994); differences that parallel our findings of gender differences in internalizing, positive, and externalizing emotion expressions.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Feingold, 1994 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There also were a number of studies that were excluded because the authors did not provide enough information to calculate effect sizes. This could have biased our results because studies with null results sometimes leave out this information.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our review was limited to observational studies of emotion expression.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, among children of Asian heritage there may be socialization pressure for all children to control emotions, potentially leading both girls and boys to suppress emotion expressions, possibly attenuating the ability to detect gender differences (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole & Tan, 2007
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our review was also limited to studies of emotion expression and did not assess gender differences in strategies used to regulate emotion.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We attempted to counter this bias by including all studies of emotion expression, not just those that examined gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another limitation of this review is the small cell sizes in some of our analyses. In particular, there were relatively few observational studies of emotion in adolescents”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, our findings underscore the importance of examining contextual factors influencing gender differences in emotion expressions across child and adolescent development.”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Summary
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion, are related to individual differences in patterns of emotion experience and expression (Revelle & Scherer, 2009).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Revelle & Scherer, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“most of the studies in the present meta-analysis consisted of primarily Caucasian samples, which prevented us from examining differences between ethnic groups”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“which is important, since gender roles for emotion expression may differ in different ethnic groups (Cole & Tan, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole & Tan, 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our review included studies that measured emotion expression in a variety of ways, including the frequency, duration, and intensity of expression. It was not possible to disentangle these different measurements in the present study”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As in all studies of gender differences, it is important to note that there is great variability not only between boys and girls, but also within boys and girls (see Hyde, 2005).”
§ Gender Differences in Emotion Expression in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
Observed emotional expression is studied less often than self- or parent-report, and when observed, it does not consistently show gender differences.
“Observations of emotional expression are less commonly conducted; and when they are, the observed emotions do not always show such consistent gender differences”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.
“We assumed that our effect sizes were sampled from a universe of possible sample sizes.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies.
“as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A recent review on emotional expressions in childhood and adolescence shows that the sex differences in expression of various emotions only begin to emerge through school-age and adolescence (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, there were also studies that indicated no sex differences regarding Negative emotions (self-reported anger, negative emotion, powerful emotions; Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding Negative emotions, females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions, such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear (SMDs = 0.12–1.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2004; van Hemert et al., 2011)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For those cases in which there is an overall sex difference such that females score higher on Negative emotions, higher living conditions seem to predict that they express and feel even more negative emotions (e.g., guilt and crying) compared with men (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For Positive emotions, women have higher levels of happiness and smile more (SMD = 0.10; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Finally, no clear pattern can be seen for measures for which there is no sex difference (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These differences are influenced by contextual factors; differences between boys and girls are almost absent when the children interact with parents, but become significant during interaction with unfamiliar adults or peers (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“whereas males had higher levels of externalizing anger, antagonism, brow furrowing, and loneliness (SMDs = 0.07–0.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, for the single study analyzed in the new analyses, in which females scored higher (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), sex differences were smaller in countries with higher living conditions.”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“if anything, an opposite pattern seems to be present for self-reported anger and brow furrowing, that is, there are larger sex differences in countries with higher living conditions (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; McDuff et al., 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Chaplin & Aldao, 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“In low-risk children, a small female advantage in social affect, e.g., more expression of positive emotions with unfamiliar adults, can be detected [41].”
From Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study (2015) · cites this paper as [41]
Citations
Cites
Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias
Begg, C. B., & Mazumdar, M. (1994) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2533446 · Cited by 16,955
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 · Cited by 11,929
In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development.
Johnson, M. M., & Gilligan, C. (1983) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2067520 · Cited by 11,153
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
(2000) · Cited by 9,198
The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results.
Rosenthal, R. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638 · Cited by 9,068 · cited 1×
“Boys may be more inclined than girls to express anger-related emotions with peers as part of their greater tendency to engage in rough-and-tumble play (Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Positive and internalizing emotion expressions, which are more common for girls, show the largest gender differences in the presence of an unfam…”
BackgroundThe Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
Tropman, J. E., & Hochschild, A. R. (1984) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.2307/3324333 · Cited by 8,750
Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 · Cited by 6,686 · cited 2×
“This conservative approach has been used frequently in recent meta-analytic reviews (e.g., Aldao et al., 2010; Richardson , Abraham, & Bond, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe psychology of sex differences
Maccoby, E. E. (1975) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(75)80031-1 · Cited by 5,714 · cited 1×
“In their classic narrative review of gender differences in childhood, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) examined gender differences in two types of emotion expressions: frustration reactions (outbursts of negative emotions such as anger or crying in response to frustrating situations) and fear.”
BackgroundMethods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
Principles of behavior modification
Bandura, A. (1969) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,631
Relational Aggression, Gender, and Social-Psychological Adjustment
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x · Cited by 3,954
Editorial Office (1997) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1381/096089297765555359 · Cited by 3,941
Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0026838 · Cited by 3,646
The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
Spelman, D. H., & Hochschild, A. R. (1985) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/257986 · Cited by 3,352
The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
Hochschild, A. R. (2012) · doi:10.1525/9780520951853 · Cited by 3,236 · cited 1×
“This tendency to minimize interpersonal tension, including through nonverbal emotional expression , is consistent with female gender roles to be relationship oriented, to care for others, and to manage emotions in the service of others (Hochschild, 1983).”
BackgroundThe gender similarities hypothesis.
Hyde, J. S. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.6.581 · Cited by 3,084
Fixed-and random-effects models in meta-analysis.
Hedges, L. V., & Vevea, J. L. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.486 · Cited by 2,977 · cited 2×
“Therefore, we conducted random effects models, as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies (Field, 2003; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001).”
MethodParental Socialization of Emotion
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A. J., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1 · Cited by 2,925
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98 · Cited by 2,517
Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings.
Raudenbush, S. W., Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1991) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2289738 · Cited by 2,368
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.107.1.128 · Cited by 2,333
Handbook of infant development
Osofsky, J. D. (1979) · Cited by 2,263
Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis.
Feingold, A. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.429 · Cited by 2,240
Leon, R. L. (1974) · Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)61341-8 · Cited by 2,081
A Fail-Safe N for Effect Size in Meta-Analysis
Orwin, R. G. (1983) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164923 · Cited by 2,064
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,063
Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective.
Kopp, C. B. (1982) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199 · Cited by 2,046 · cited 1×
“As children develop through the school age years, they gain in their ability to modulate emotional expression (Kopp, 1982).”
BackgroundCole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.x · Cited by 2,013
Meta-Analysis: Recent Developments in Quantitative Methods for Literature Reviews
Rosenthal, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.59 · Cited by 1,780 · cited 3×
“Therefore, we conducted random effects models, as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies (Field, 2003; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001).”
MethodThe Development of Emotional Competence
Saarni, C. I. (1999) · Cited by 1,671
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00337 · Cited by 1,580
Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders
Mineka, S., Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.377 · Cited by 1,573
Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061 · Cited by 1,543
Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
Gross, J. J. (1999) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999399379186 · Cited by 1,482
Gender and relationships: A developmental account.
Maccoby, E. E. (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.45.4.513 · Cited by 1,430
The Psychology of Sex Differences: —Vol. I: Text
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974) · doi:10.1515/9781503620780 · Cited by 1,368
Lewis, M. D., Haviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (2000) · Cited by 1,304
Gender and relationships: A developmental account.
Maccoby, E. E. (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.45.4.513 · Cited by 1,294 · cited 4×
“In their classic narrative review of gender differences in childhood, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) examined gender differences in two types of emotion expressions: frustration reactions (outbursts of negative emotions such as anger or crying in response to frustrating situations) and fear. They reported that infant boys…”
BackgroundInfluentialTHE DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTION REGULATION AND DYSREGULATION: A CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (2008) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01278.x · Cited by 1,273
Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior.
Deaux, K., & Major, B. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.369 · Cited by 1,216 · cited 1×
“In other words, gender differences emerge when " perceivers [others] emit expectancies, targets (selves) negotiate their own identities, and the context in which interaction occurs shapes the resultant behavior " (Deaux & Major, 1987, p. 369).”
BackgroundParents' differential socialization of boys and girls: a meta-analysis
Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.267 · Cited by 1,210
Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33 · Cited by 1,169 · cited 2×
“Else-Quest et al. (2006) also examined positive mood, as assessed by questionnaires.”
BackgroundAffect, imagery, consciousness, Vol. 1: The positive affects.
Tomkins, S. S. (1992) · doi:10.1037/14351-000 · Cited by 1,164
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (2009) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/0891243208326529 · Cited by 1,135
The Intensification of Gender-Related Role Expectations during Early Adolescence
Hill, J. P., & Lynch, M. E. (1983) · Girls at Puberty · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0354-9_10 · Cited by 1,097 · cited 1×
“For instance, the social, biological, and cognitive changes associated with adolescence may contribute to an increased emphasis on the importance of behaving according to gender roles, as youths become increasingly aware of larger society and their roles in it (e.g., Hill & Lynch, 1983).”
BackgroundDisorders of Childhood and Adolescence: Gender and Psychopathology
Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Marceau, K. (2008) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091358 · Cited by 1,072
Sex differences in emotion: Expression, experience, and physiology.
Kring, A. M., & Gordon, A. H. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.686 · Cited by 1,067
McClure, E. B. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.424 · Cited by 1,032 · cited 1×
“For example, girls are more empathic, have better social skills, and are better able to read others’ emotions and behaviors than boys (McClure, 2000; Zahn-Waxler, Shirtcliff, & Marceau, 2008).”
BackgroundBonanno, G. A., Papa, A., Lalande, K., Westphal, M., & Coifman, K. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00705.x · Cited by 969
The Future of Emotion Regulation Research: Capturing Context
Aldao, A. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612459518 · Cited by 948
Self-citationA meta-analysis of the effect of cognitive bias modification on anxiety and depression
Hallion, L. S., & Ruscio, A. M. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0024355 · Cited by 891 · cited 1×
“Hedges's g can be interpreted using the same conventions as Cohen's d (Hallion & Ruscio, 2011).”
MethodBuck, R. W. (1984) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 874
Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt.
Lewis, M. (2008) · Cited by 840
Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00150 · Cited by 801
A Schematic Processing Model of Sex Typing and Stereotyping in Children
Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F. (1981) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129498 · Cited by 800 · cited 1×
“According to this theory, boys and girls develop cognitive schemas for gender based on observing their environments (Martin & Halverson, 1981).”
BackgroundProneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. H. (1992) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.101.3.469 · Cited by 793
Developmental and social influences on young girls' early problem behavior.
Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.95 · Cited by 756 · cited 1×
“Within this socialization, caregivers may socialize gender-role-consistent display rules for emotion (e.g., Chaplin, Casey, Sinha, & Mayes, 2010), which may lead to gender differences in emotion expressions and other behaviors emerging at this time (e.g., Keenan & Shaw, 1997).”
BackgroundFrick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Barry, C. T., Bodin, S. D., & Dane, H. E. (2003) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1023899703866 · Cited by 737
(1984) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · Cited by 733
Sex Differences in Brain Maturation during Childhood and Adolescence
De Bellis, M. D. (2001) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/11.6.552 · Cited by 728 · cited 1×
“Also, hormonal changes during puberty may trigger changes in emotion-related neural circuitry differently for boys and girls, further contributing to gender differences in emotion expression (e.g., De Bellis et al., 2001).”
BackgroundEmotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400006301 · Cited by 725
Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children
Carlson, S. M., & Wang, T. S. (2007) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.002 · Cited by 701 · cited 1×
“Barry & Kochanska (2010) 0.23 50 51 Infant w Parent Neg No Barry & Kochanska (2010) 0.”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning Display Rules: The Socialization of Emotion Expression in Infancy
Malatesta, C. Z., & Haviland, J. M. (1982) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129139 · Cited by 696
The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation
(1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511663963 · Cited by 668
The Psychology of Gender: Advances through Meta-Analysis
Halpern, D. F., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1989) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422961 · Cited by 609
Parental Socialization of Emotion Expression: Gender Differences and Relations to Child Adjustment.
Chaplin, T. M., Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2005) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.80 · Cited by 594 · cited 1×
“…consistent with this notion, a later study found that boys decreased in sadness/ anxiety expression during a frustrating game from preschool to early school age, leading to larger gender differences (girls greater than boys) in sadness/anxiety expression by early school age (Chaplin et al., 2005a).”
ResultSelf-citationThe developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions.
Knafo‐Noam, A., Zahn‐Waxler, C., Hulle, C. V., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0014179 · Cited by 568
Self Development and Self-Conscious Emotions
Lewis, M. B., Sullivan, M. W., Stanger, C., & Weiss, M. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131080 · Cited by 563
The development of empathy in twins.
Zahn‐Waxler, C., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.6.1038 · Cited by 546
The relations of regulation and emotionality to problem behavior in elementary school children
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., Maszk, P., Holmgren, R., & Suh, K. (1996) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457940000701x · Cited by 539
Brand, J. L. (1997) · Digital Commons - Andrews University (Andrews University) · Cited by 537
Three-Month-Old Infants' Reaction to Simulated Maternal Depression
Cohn, J. F., & Tronick, E. Z. (1983) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129876 · Cited by 535
Patterns of emotions a new analysis of anxiety and depression
Izard, C. E., Bartlett, E. S., & Marshall, A. G. (1972) · Cited by 530
The Development of Emotion Expression during the First Two Years of Life
Malatesta, C. Z., Culver, C., Tesman, J. R., Shepard, B., Fogel, A., Reimers, M., & Zivin, G. (1989) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1166153 · Cited by 527
Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers.
Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014322 · Cited by 515
The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling.
LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., & Paluck, E. L. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.305 · Cited by 514
Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching
Zeman, J. L., & Garber, J. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01776.x · Cited by 487 · cited 1×
“Zeman and Garber (1996) found that children were more likely to report expressing negative emotions (including sadness and anger) in front of a parent or when alone than when with a peer; this was because of an expectation that parents would respond to these emotions with acceptance, whereas peers…”
BackgroundChildren's Spontaneous Control of Facial Expression
Cole, P. M. (1986) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130411 · Cited by 477 · cited 4×
“In studies using variations of the disappointment task, girls have been found to display less negative emotion than boys and to show more cheeriness than boys when they are in front of the experimenter (e.g., Cole, 1986; Saarni, 1984).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.
Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027930 · Cited by 464
An Observational Study of Children's Attempts to Monitor Their Expressive Behavior
Saarni, C. (1984) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130020 · Cited by 453 · cited 2×
“For example, in the disappointment task (e.g., Saarni, 1984), school-age children are given an undesirable gift by an experimenter.”
BackgroundGender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy.
Weinberg, M. K., Tronick, E. Z., Cohn, J. F., & Olson, K. L. (1999) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.35.1.175 · Cited by 443
Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., Relyea, N., & Simons, R. F. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00460 · Cited by 442
Family support and conflict: Prospective relations to adolescent depression
Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Alpert, A., Davis, B., & Andrews, J. (1997) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1025768504415 · Cited by 439
(2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628191 · Cited by 430
The Relations of Emotionality and Regulation to Children's Anger-Related Reactions
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas, A. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00738.x · Cited by 430
(2008) · Cited by 412
Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187 · Cited by 368 · cited 1×
“In social-developmental theories, it is proposed that children learn gender-role-consistent behaviors over time through cognitive learning, socialization, and experience (for a review, see Liben & Bigler, 2002).”
BackgroundLewis, M., & Rosenblum, L. A. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8 · Cited by 364
(1987) · Cited by 363
Moore, G. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1068 · Cited by 345
Individual differences in emotion regulation and behavior problems in preschool children.
Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., Fox, N. A., Usher, B. A., & Welsh, J. D. (1996) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.105.4.518 · Cited by 340
Young Children's Coping with Interpersonal Anger
Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb03600.x · Cited by 326
On the relative effectiveness of affect regulation strategies: A meta-analysis
Augustine, A. A., & Hemenover, S. H. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930802396556 · Cited by 324 · cited 1×
“We addressed this problem by narrowing our definition of the construct (Aldao et al., 2010; Augustine & Hemenover, 2009; Thomas, Vartanian, & Brownell, 2009).”
BackgroundSpeaking from the heart: gender and the social meaning of emotion
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3710 · Cited by 321
(1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 316
Infants' responses to facial and vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm.
Mumme, D. L., Fernald, A., & Herrera, C. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01910.x · Cited by 308
Brody, L. R. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628191.003 · Cited by 307 · cited 2×
“Brody (1999, 2000) proposed that gender differences in emotions develop based on a combination of innate predispositions and socialization by parents, teachers, and peers into the cultural gender roles described above.”
BackgroundRegulation, Emotionality, and Preschoolers' Socially Competent Peer Interactions
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Jones, S., Smith, M. C., Guthrie, I. K., Poulin, R., Shepard, S. A., & Friedman, J. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00031 · Cited by 301
Parental socialization of children's dysregulated expression of emotion and externalizing problems.
Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. H., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Shepard, S. A., Poulin, R., & Padgett, S. J. (2001) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.2.183 · Cited by 298
Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching
Zeman, J. L., & Garber, J. E. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131873 · Cited by 298
Expressive control during a disappointment: Variations related to preschoolers' behavior problems.
Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Smith, K. D. (1994) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.835 · Cited by 292
Thomas, J. J., Vartanian, L. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0015326 · Cited by 287 · cited 1×
“We addressed this problem by narrowing our definition of the construct (Aldao et al., 2010; Augustine & Hemenover, 2009; Thomas, Vartanian, & Brownell, 2009).”
BackgroundSheeber, L., Davis, B., Leve, C. S., Hops, H., & Tildesley, E. A. (2007) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.116.1.144 · Cited by 286
Emotion Dysregulation as a Risk Factor for Child Psychopathology
Keenan, K. E. (2000) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.7.4.418 · Cited by 284 · cited 2×
“For example, an individual’s ability to be emotionally aware and appropriately communicative of feelings is a hallmark not only of socioemotional competence but also of mental health (Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995; Gross, 1999; Keenan, 2000).”
BackgroundMoore, G. A., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Cox, M. J. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01255.x · Cited by 270
Toddler self-regulation skills predict risk for pediatric obesity
Graziano, P. A., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.288 · Cited by 264
The Relations of Parental Characteristics and Practices to Children's Vicarious Emotional Responding
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Schaller, M., Carlo, G., & Miller, P. A. (1991) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01613.x · Cited by 263
Gender, emotion, and the family
Brody, L. R. (1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-2450 · Cited by 258
Emotional Development in Children with Different Attachment Histories: The First Three Years
Kochanska, G. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00291 · Cited by 258
Leaper, C., & Smith, T. E. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.993 · Cited by 255
You Can't Always Get What You Want
Kieras, J. E., Tobin, R. M., Graziano, W. G., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01546.x · Cited by 253
Izard, C. E., & Malatesta, C. Z. (1987) · Cited by 252
(2007) · Cognitie, Creier, Comportament · Cited by 251
Which fearful toddlers should we worry about? Context, fear regulation, and anxiety risk.
Buss, K. A. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023227 · Cited by 247
Tomkins, S. S., & Karon, B. P. (1963) · Springer eBooks · Cited by 246
Speaking from the Heart: Gender and the Social Meaning of Emotion
Grills, S., & Shields, S. A. (2004) · The Canadian Journal of Sociology · doi:10.2307/3341953 · Cited by 242
Infant and Maternal Behaviors Regulate Infant Reactivity to Novelty at 6 Months.
Crockenberg, S., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1123 · Cited by 241
Behavioral and physiological correlates of children's reactions to others in distress.
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Eisenbud, L. (1993) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.655 · Cited by 241
The Problems in Using Fixed-Effects Models of Meta-Analysis on Real-World Data
Field, A. P. (2003) · Understanding Statistics · doi:10.1207/s15328031us0202_02 · Cited by 237 · cited 2×
“Therefore, we conducted random effects models, as they assume that effect sizes differ from the population by sampling error plus random variability among the studies (Field, 2003; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001; Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodDifferences in Shame and Pride as a Function of Children's Gender and Task Difficulty
Lewis, M., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131351 · Cited by 233
Guilt and empathy: Sex differences and implications for the development of depression
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P. M., & Barrett, K. C. (1991) · The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511663963.012 · Cited by 231 · cited 2×
“Similarly, girls’ greater tendency to display internalizing negative emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, and sympathy, may also contribute to their being seen as more prosocial than boys (ZahnWaxler, 2001; Zahn-Waxler et al., 1991).”
BackgroundZahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P., Welsh, J. D., & Fox, N. (1995) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400006325 · Cited by 231
Izard, C. E., King, K. A., Trentacosta, C. J., Morgan, J. K., Laurenceau, J.-P., Krauthamer-Ewing, E. S., & Finlon, K. J. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000175 · Cited by 229
Sympathy, distress, and prosocial behavior of preschool children in four cultures
Trommsdorff, G., Friedlmeier, W., & Mayer, B. (2007) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025407076441 · Cited by 225
Conradt, E. D., & Ablow, J. C. (2010) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.01.001 · Cited by 218
Malatesta, C. Z., & Wilson, A. (1988) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1988.tb00807.x · Cited by 217
Publication bias as a threat to the validity of meta-analytic results
Rothstein, H. R. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-007-9046-9 · Cited by 216
Childhood precursors of schizophrenia: facial expressions of emotion.
Walker, E. F., Grimes, K., Davis, D. M., & Smith, A. J. (1993) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.150.11.1654 · Cited by 216
Westphal, M., Seivert, N. H., & Bonanno, G. A. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0018420 · Cited by 208
Dennis, T. A. (2006) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.84 · Cited by 199
All smiles are positive, but some smiles are more positive than others.
Messinger, D. S., Fogel, A., & Dickson, K. L. (2001) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.642 · Cited by 199
COLE, P. M., TETI, L. O., & ZAHN–WAXLER, C. (2003) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579403000014 · Cited by 198
Jones, S. L., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2002) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.2002.0007 · Cited by 197
Infants' Responses to Facial and Vocal Emotional Signals in a Social Referencing Paradigm
Mumme, D. L., Fernald, A. E., & Herrera, C. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131775 · Cited by 195
HANISH, L. D., EISENBERG, N., FABES, R. A., SPINRAD, T. L., RYAN, P., & SCHMIDT, S. (2004) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579404044542 · Cited by 194
Infant Stress Reactivity and Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Haley, D. W., Handmaker, N. S., & Lowe, J. R. (2006) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00251.x · Cited by 192
The Oxford companion to emotion and the affective sciences
Sander, D., & Scherer, K. R. (2009) · Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) · Cited by 191
Wills, T. A., DuHamel, K., & Vaccaro, D. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.5.901 · Cited by 191
Hubbard, J. A. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00357 · Cited by 190
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Carlo, G., Troyer, D., Speer, A. L., Karbon, M., & Switzer, G. E. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01648.x · Cited by 186
Gender differences in parent-child conversations about past emotions
Kuebli, J. E., & Fıvush, R. (1992) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf02651097 · Cited by 185 · cited 1×
“…is theorized that parents encourage emotions in their young girls, talking to them about emotions because of girls' larger vocabularies and more communicative skills (indeed, research shows that parents do use more emotion words when talking with daughters than sons; e.g., Kuebli & Fivush, 1992).”
BackgroundEmotion Socialization and Expressive Development in Preterm and Full-Term Infants
Malatesta, C. Z., Grigoryev, P. B., Lamb, C., Albin, M., & Culver, C. (1986) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1986.tb00031.x · Cited by 184
Attachment and adolescents’ emotion regulation during a joint problem-solving task with a friend
Zimmermann, P., Maier, M., Winter, M., & Grossmann, K. E. (2001) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250143000157 · Cited by 182
The ontogeny and significance of infants' facial expressions in the first 9 months of life.
Izard, C. E., Fantauzzo, C., Castle, J. M., Haynes, O. M., Rayias, M. F., & Putnam, P. H. (1995) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.997 · Cited by 180
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Karbon, M., Troyer, D., & Switzer, G. E. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00842.x · Cited by 180
Emotion Socialization and Expressive Development in Preterm and Full-Term Infants
Malatesta, C. Z., Grigoryev, P. B., Lamb, C., Albin, M., & Culver, C. (1986) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130587 · Cited by 178
Weinberg, M. K., Olson, K. L., Beeghly, M., & Tronick, E. Z. (2006) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01545.x · Cited by 174
Moore, G. A., Cohn, J. F., & Campbell, S. B. G. (2001) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.706 · Cited by 171
Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., Pressly, P. K., & Heesacker, M. (2002) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/00100002030004008 · Cited by 167 · cited 1×
“In this theory, it is proposed that there are gender-related display rules in the United States and many European cultures for girls to be more emotionally expressive than boys (consistent with this, women have been shown to be more emotionally expressive than men; Kring & Gordon, 1998).”
BackgroundCostello, C. G. (1993) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 166
Snyder, J. J., Stoolmiller, M., Wilson, M., & Yamamoto, M. (2003) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00237 · Cited by 163
Facial Expression and Affect Development
Oster, H. (1978) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8_3 · Cited by 160 · cited 1×
“…1979 as a starting point because three major emotion coding systems—the Facial Action Coding System (FACS; Ekman & Friesen, 1978), the Maximally Discriminative Facial Movement Coding System (MAX; Izard, 1979), and Oster's coding system for infants (Oster, 1978)—were published around that time.”
BackgroundProduction of emotional facial expressions in European American, Japanese, and Chinese infants.
Camras, L. A., Oster, H., Campos, J., Campos, R. G., Ujiie, T., Miyake, K., Wang, L., & Meng, Z. (1998) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.34.4.616 · Cited by 160
El‐Sheikh, M. (2005) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.00418.x · Cited by 156
Biringen, Z. C., Emde, R. N., Campos, J. J., & Appelbaum, M. I. (1995) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00886.x · Cited by 155 · cited 1×
“33 18 20 Infant w Parent Pos No Biringen et al. (1995) 0.”
BackgroundGender differences in masking negative emotions: Ability or motivation?
Davis, T. L. (1995) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.4.660 · Cited by 150 · cited 1×
“This gender difference may be explained by (a) girls' greater propensity for responding in ways that preserve relationships (e.g., with the experimenter ), consistent with female gender roles, and (b) girls' greater skill at modulating facial expressions (Davis, 1995).”
Background(2007) · Cited by 149
Sallquist, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., & Gaertner, B. M. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760902819444 · Cited by 146 · cited 2×
“They alert and prepare us to act to maintain conditions that support our goals for well-being and to change conditions that threaten our goals for well-being (Barrett & Campos, 1987). Therefore, it especially important to consider contextual influences, particularly the interpersonal context, when evaluating the natur…”
BackgroundEisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Jones, S. L., & Guthrie, I. K. (1998) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.910 · Cited by 145
Differences in Shame and Pride as a Function of Children's Gender and Task Difficulty
Lewis, M., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1992) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01651.x · Cited by 140
Gazelle, H., & Druhen, M. J. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016165 · Cited by 139
Buck, R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.35.4.225 · Cited by 139 · cited 4×
“Consistent with this, Buck (1977) found that boys' emotional expressions decreased with age from age 4 to 6, whereas girls' expressions did not.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDepression in British and American children and its relation to anxiety and fear
Ollendick, T. H., & Yule, W. (1990) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.58.1.126 · Cited by 139
Miller, A. L., Fine, S. E., Gouley, K. K., Seifer, R., Dickstein, S., & Shields, A. M. (2006) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930500405691 · Cited by 138
Gaertner, B. M., Spinrad, T. L., & Eisenberg, N. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.580 · Cited by 135
Cortisol Response to Embarrassment and Shame
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. S. (2002) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00455 · Cited by 129
Garner, P. W., & Power, T. G. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01804.x · Cited by 128
Family relationships of depressed adolescents: A multimethod assessment
Sheeber, L., & Sorensen, E. K. (1998) · Journal of Clinical Child Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2703_4 · Cited by 123
Positive emotionality at age 3 predicts cognitive styles in 7-year-old children
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., & Olino, T. M. (2006) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579406060226 · Cited by 123
Developing Theory-Based Substance Abuse Prevention Programs for Young Adolescent Girls
Amaro, H., Blake, S. M., Schwartz, P. M., & Flinchbaugh, L. J. (2001) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431601021003002 · Cited by 123
Emotional Competence and Aggressive Behavior in School-Age Children
Bohnert, A. M., Crnic, K. A., & Lim, K. G. (2003) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1023/a:1021725400321 · Cited by 120 · cited 1×
“43 23 20 Tod/pre w Peer Neg No Bohnert et al. (2003) 0.”
Berlin, L. J., & Cassidy, J. A. (2003) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00244 · Cited by 120
The Effect of Excessive Crying on the Development of Emotion Regulation
Stifter, C. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2002) · Infancy · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0302_2 · Cited by 119
Maternal correlates of children's vicarious emotional responsiveness
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.4.639 · Cited by 118
Preadolescent Clues to Understanding Depression in Girls
Keenan, K., & Hipwell, A. E. (2005) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-005-4750-3 · Cited by 118
Emotional Facial Expressions in Infancy
Camras, L. A., & Shutter, J. M. (2010) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073909352529 · Cited by 117 · cited 1×
“(2010) 0.94 9 9 Infant w Parent Pos No Barry & Kochanska (2010) 0.”
InfluentialComparison of Sadness, Anger, and Fear Facial Expressions When Toddlers Look at Their Mothers
Buss, K. A., & Kiel, E. J. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00815.x · Cited by 116
Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1995) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699939508409009 · Cited by 112
Liew, J., Eisenberg, N., & Reiser, M. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.06.004 · Cited by 111
Examining the Familial Link Between Positive Affect and Empathy Development in the Second Year
Volbrecht, M. M., Lemery‐Chalfant, K., Aksan, N. S., Zahn‐Waxler, C., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2007) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.3200/gntp.168.2.105-130 · Cited by 111
The Development of Anticipatory Smiling
Parlade, M. V., Messinger, D. S., Thorp, D. M., & Mundy, P. C. (2004) · Infancy · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0603_5 · Cited by 111
Dynamic measures of RSA predict distress and regulation in toddlers
Brooker, R. J., & Buss, K. A. (2010) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20432 · Cited by 107
The etiology of children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality
Birnbaum, D. W., & Croll, W. L. (1984) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf00287379 · Cited by 106
Differences in pride and shame in maltreated and nonmaltreated preschoolers.
Alessandri, S. M., & Lewis, M. B. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 103
Contextual determinants of anger and other negative expressions in young infants.
Sullivan, M. W., & Lewis, M. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.4.693 · Cited by 103
Whittle, S., Yap, M. B. H., Yücel, M., Fornito, A., Simmons, J. G., Barrett, A., Sheeber, L., & Allen, N. B. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0709815105 · Cited by 100
Affective interactions of depressed and nondepressed mothers and their children
Radke‐Yarrow, M., Nottelmann, E. D., Belmont, B., & Welsh, J. D. (1993) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00916450 · Cited by 100
El-Sheikh, M. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/bf02171994 · Cited by 99
Garner, P. W., & Power, T. G. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131708 · Cited by 98
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Granger, D. A., Eggum, N. D., Sallquist, J., Haugen, R. G., Kupfer, A. S., & Hofer, C. (2009) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.020 · Cited by 96
Ghera, M. M., Marshall, P. J., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., Nelson, C. A., Smyke, A. T., & Guthrie, D. (2009) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01954.x · Cited by 96
Genetic and attachment influences on adolescents’ regulation of autonomy and aggressiveness
Zimmermann, P., Mohr, C., & Spangler, G. (2009) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02158.x · Cited by 96
The Development of Emotional Competence. The Guilford Series on Social and Emotional Development.
Saarni, C. I. (1999) · Cited by 95
Gender, sadness, and depression: The development of emotional focus through gendered discourse
Fıvush, R., & Buckner, J. P. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628191.012 · Cited by 95 · cited 1×
“…happiness and internalizing emotion expressions in girls, through modeling of gender-specific patterns of emotional expression and/or through reacting to children's emotion expressions in ways that promote adherence to gender roles (Chaplin, Cole, & Zahn-Waxler, 2005a; Fivush & Buckner, 2000).”
BackgroundEisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Spinrad, T. L., Gershoff, E. T., Valiente, C., Losoya, S. H., Zhou, Q., Cumberland, A. J., Liew, J., Reiser, M., et al. (2008) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2008.00470.x · Cited by 93
Facial Expressivity at 4 Months: A Context by Expression Analysis
Bennett, D. S., Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. (2002) · Culture Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0301_5 · Cited by 93
The Developing Brain and Adolescent-Typical Behavior Patterns
SPEAR, L. P. (2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195306255.003.0001 · Cited by 92
Emotion Regulation in Context: Situational Effects on Infant and Caregiver Behavior
Miller, A. L., McDonough, S. C., Rosenblum, K. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2002) · Infancy · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0304_01 · Cited by 91
Carter, A. S., Little, C., Briggs‐Gowan, M. J., & Kogan, N. (1999) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0355(199924)20:4 · Cited by 90
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5 · Cited by 1,757
Gender Similarities and Differences
Hyde, J. S. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057 · Cited by 1,262
Empathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior
Christov-Moore, L., Simpson, E. A., Coudé, G., Grigaityte, K., Iacoboni, M., & Ferrari, P. F. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001 · Cited by 1,137
“Empathy in adolescence Females are more prosocial, sympathetic, and empathetic than males, from childhood through adolescence (for reviews, see Chaplin and Aldao, 2013; Rose and Rudolph, 2006).”
BackgroundEmotional intelligence predicts academic performance: a meta-analysis
MacCann, C., Jiang, Y., Brown, L. E. R., Double, K. S., Bucich, M., & Minbashian, A. (2020) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000219 · Cited by 1,121
Zimmermann, P., & Iwanski, A. (2014) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025413515405 · Cited by 916
“Some authors suggest that gender differences may result from differences in emotional reactivity and regulation based on brain processes (Domes et al., 2010) or expressiveness (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chaplin, Tara M.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 139
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 735-765
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC3597769
- OpenAlex
- W2156233592
- Cited by
- 1,247
- References
- 309
- Citations by year
- 2026: 153 · 2025: 161 · 2024: 133 · 2023: 123 · 2022: 104 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 7
- FWCI
- 24.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (K01DA024759)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, emotional expression, children, facial expressions, vocal expression, behavioral expression, positive emotions, age differences, interpersonal context, parent-child interaction, peer interaction, adolescence, middle childhood, toddlerhood
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Analysis of Variance, Child, Child Behavior, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Infant, Male, Models, Theoretical, Regression Analysis, Sex Characteristics, Socialization, Adolescent Development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
