Referring men to seek help: The influence of gender role conflict and stigma.
Abstract
Why do men tend to underutilize mental health services? One reason may be that men are less frequently referred to seek such services. Indeed, male friends and family members may be particularly unlikely to refer men to seek mental health services, as it means going against the traditional male gender role proscription of talking to other men about emotional issues. This study is the first to explore how men’s experiences of gender role conflict may be associated with an increased endorsement of stigmatization around mental health concerns and, subsequently, a decreased willingness to refer friends and family members experiencing a mental health concern to seek help. Results based on structural equation modeling with data from 216 male collegians indicated that men who endorsed greater restricted emotionality were less willing to refer friends and family members experiencing a mental health concern to seek treatment. In turn, men who endorsed greater Restricted affectionate behavior between men also endorsed greater stigma, which then led to a decreased willingness to refer friends and family members to seek help.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Men and some minority groups report stigma as being particularly prolific in this context.
“Men and some minority groups report stigma as being particularly prolific in this context [18,19].”
From Providing Self-Led Mental Health Support Through an Artificial Intelligence–Powered Chat Bot (Leora) to Meet the Demand of Mental Health Care (2023) · cites this paper as [18]
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · see citing works
Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 · Cited by 41,941 · see citing works
An Introduction to the Bootstrap
Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. J. (1994) · doi:10.1201/9780429246593 · Cited by 40,500 · see citing works
Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations.
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.4.422 · Cited by 11,335 · see citing works
A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2001) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02296192 · Cited by 5,282 · see citing works
How stigma interferes with mental health care.
Corrigan, P. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.7.614 · Cited by 3,648 · see citing works
Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking
Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.1.5 · Cited by 2,761 · see citing works
A Modified Labeling Theory Approach to Mental Disorders: An Empirical Assessment
Link, B. G., Cullen, F. T., Struening, E., Shrout, P. E., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1989) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095613 · Cited by 1,935 · see citing works
A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health Second Edition
Scheid, T. L., & Brown, T. N. (2009) · Cited by 1,320 · see citing works
Handbook of counseling psychology
Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1992) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,163 · see citing works
Gender-role conflict scale: College men's fear of femininity
O’Neil, J. M., Helms, B. J., Gable, R., David, L., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1986) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf00287583 · Cited by 813 · see citing works
O'Neil, J. M. (2008) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000008317057 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
Analyzing data from experimental studies: A latent variable structural equation modeling approach.
Russell, D. W., Kahn, J. H., Spoth, R. L., & ALTMAIER, E. M. (1998) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.45.1.18 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
Social-psychological factors affecting help-seeking for emotional problems
Rickwood, D. J., & Braithwaite, V. A. (1994) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(94)90099-x · Cited by 583 · see citing works
Vogel, D. L., Heimerdinger-Edwards, S. R., Hammer, J. H., & Hubbard, A. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023688 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Self-citationStigma of mental illness and ways of diminishing it
Byrne, P. (2000) · Advances in Psychiatric Treatment · doi:10.1192/apt.6.1.65 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Sex differences in same-sex friendship
Caldwell, M. A., & Peplau, L. A. (1982) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf00287568 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
Experiences of mental illness stigma, prejudice and discrimination: a review of measures
Brohan, E., Slade, M., Clement, S., & Thornicroft, G. (2010) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-80 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Shortfall in mental health service utilisation
Andrews, G., Issakidis, C., & Carter, G. (2001) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.179.5.417 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Seeking help from a mental health professional: The influence of one's social network
Vogel, D. L., Wade, N. G., Wester, S. R., Larson, L., & Hackler, A. H. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20345 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-efficacy and empowerment as outcomes of self-stigmatizing and coping in schizophrenia
Vauth, R., Kleim, B., Wirtz, M. A., & Corrigan, P. W. (2007) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.07.005 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
When counselors are heard but not seen: Initial impact of physical attractiveness.
Cash, T. F., Begley, P. J., McCown, D. A., & Weise, B. C. (1975) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0076730 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Experience of social stigma by people with schizophrenia in Hong Kong
Lee, S., Lee, M. T. Y., Chiu, M. Y.-L., & Kleinman, A. (2005) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.186.2.153 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Pederson, E. L., & Vogel, D. L. (2007) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.4.373 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Self-citationO’Neil, J. M., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. E. (1995) · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Berger, J. M., Levant, R. F., McMillan, K. K., Kelleher, W. J., & Sellers, A. (2005) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.1.73 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Interpersonal consequences of depression: Responses to men and women enacting a depressed role.
Hammen, C. L., & Peters, S. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.87.8.322 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Brooks, G. R., & Good, G. E. (2001) · Jossey-Bass eBooks · Cited by 220 · see citing works
(2009) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e562142009-001 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
How do people come to use mental health services? Current knowledge and changing perspectives.
Pescosolido, B. A., & Boyer, C. A. (1999) · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Men's help seeking: Examination of differences across community size, education, and income.
Hammer, J. H., Vogel, D. L., & Edwards, S. R. (2012) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0026813 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citationTull, M. T., Jakupcak, M., Paulson, A., & Gratz, K. L. (2007) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615800701379249 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Men's gender role conflict and use of psychological defenses.
Mahalik, J. R., Cournoyer, R. J., DeFranc, W., Cherry, M. A., & Napolitano, J. M. (1998) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.45.3.247 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Adolescents' help-seeking behaviour: the difference between self- and other-referral
Raviv, A., Sills, R., Raviv, A., & Wilansky, P. (2000) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1006/jado.2000.0355 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Doctors’ attitude towards people with mental illness in Western Nigeria
Adewuya, A. O., & Oguntade, A. A. (2007) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0246-4 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The differential effect of attitudes on the use of mental health services
Leaf, P. J., BRUCE, M. L., & Tischler, G. L. (1986) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/bf00583999 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Demystifying Men's Emotional Behavior: New Directions and Implications for Counseling and Research.
Wong, Y. J., & Rochlen, A. B. (2005) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.1.62 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Who Influence Men to Go to Therapy? Reports from Men Attending Psychological Services
Cusack, J., Deane, F. P., Wilson, C. J., & Ciarrochi, J. (2004) · International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling · doi:10.1023/b:adco.0000035530.44111.a8 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Factors affecting service utilization for depression in a white collar population
Dew, M. A., Bromet, E. J., Schulberg, H. C., PARKINSON, D. K., & Curtis, E. (1991) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/bf00788971 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Masculinity and Emotionality: An Investigation of Men's Primary and Secondary Emotional Responding
Jakupcak, M., Salters‐Pedneault, K., Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2003) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1024452728902 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Askew, S. (1988) · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Wong, Y. J., Pituch, K. A., & Rochlen, A. B. (2006) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.7.2.113 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
What to do about mental disorder — help‐seeking recommendations of the lay public
Angermeyer, M. C., Matschinger, H., & Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2001) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2001.103003220.x · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Development and evaluation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale Short Form (GRCS-SF).
Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., O’Neil, J. M., & Danforth, L. E. (2011) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0025550 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationWester, S. R., Arndt, D., Sedivy, S. K., & Arndt, L. M. R. (2010) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0019108 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationMagovčević, M., & Addis, M. E. (2005) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.127 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
A preliminary examination of the "Real Men. Real Depression" campaign.
Rochlen, A. B., McKelley, R. A., & Pituch, K. A. (2006) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.7.1.1 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Alvidrez, J., Snowden, L. R., Rao, S. M., & Boccellari, A. (2008) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-008-9169-0 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Male Gender Role Conflict, Gay Men, and Same-Sex Romantic Relationships.
Wester, S. R., Pionke, D. R., & Vogel, D. L. (2005) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.3.195 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationMale Restrictive Emotionality and Evaluations of Online Versus Face-to-Face Counseling.
Rochlen, A. B., Land, L. N., & Wong, Y. J. (2004) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.190 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Supporting the Thin Blue Line: Gender-Sensitive Therapy With Male Police Officers.
Wester, S. R., & Lyubelsky, J. (2005) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/0735-7028.36.1.51 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationWong, Y. J., & Rochlen, A. B. (2009) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0015041 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Vogel, D. L., Tucker, C. M., Wester, S. R., & Heesacker, M. (1999) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407599164003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationScott, N. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780199586691.003.0003 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
van der Schyff, E. L., Ridout, B., Amon, K. L., Forsyth, R., & Campbell, A. J. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/46448 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Men and some minority groups report stigma as being particularly prolific in this context [18,19].”
Images of psychiatry and psychiatrists
Stuart, H., Sartorius, N., Liinamaa, T., & the Images Study Group (2015) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12368 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Hughes, C., T. Devine, R., Foley, S., D. Ribner, A., Mesman, J., & Blair, C. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.133 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Susukida, R., Mojtabai, R., & Mendelson, T. (2015) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22366 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Widanaralalage, B. K., Hine, B. A., Murphy, A. D., & Murji, K. (2023) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-2022-0084 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
- Authors
- Vogel, D. L., Wester, S. R., Hammer, J. H., & Downing-Matibag, T. M.
- Affiliations
- Iowa State University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- Venue
- Psychology of Men & Masculinity
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 60-67
- ISSN
- 1524-9220 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-151X
- OpenAlex
- W2313271446
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 15.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychology of Men & Masculinity (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Keywords
- gender role conflict, mental health stigma, help-seeking, psychiatric referral, men, male gender roles
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
