Less drinking, yet more problems: understanding African American drinking and related problems

In the paper

“Nevertheless, African Americans also have higher levels of alcohol problems than European Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2009
• Not checked yetcites Galvan & Caetano, 2003

In the paper

“African Americans who do engage in drinking behaviors appear to be at a comparable and at times at a higher risk for experiencing alcohol related problems”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Kaskutas, 1996
• Not checked yetcites Galvan & Caetano, 2003

In the paper

“which protects against heavy use”

In the paper

“Certain factors appear to operate as both protective factors against heavy use and risk factors for negative consequences from use.”

In the paper

“African Americans report abstention from alcohol at significantly higher rates than European Americans”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a
• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Kaskutas, 1995
• Not checked yetcites SAMHSA, 2010

In the paper

“African Americans are more likely to encounter legal problems from drinking than European Americans, even at the same levels of consumption”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1997b
• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb et al., 1997b

In the paper

“There appears to be one particular group of African Americans, low-income African American men, who are at the highest risk for alcoholism and related problems.”

In the paper

“higher rates of alcohol-related illness and injuries (Greenfield, 2001; Stinson, Dufour, Steffens, & Debakey, 1993; Yoon, Yi, Grant, & Dufour, 2001)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Greenfield, 2001
• Not checked yetcites Stinson et al., 1993
• Not checked yetcites Yoon et al., 2001

In the paper

“and to some extent, alcohol dependence symptoms and/or diagnosis (Caetano, 1997; Caetano & Kaskutas, 1995; Mulia et al., 2009)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Kaskutas, 1995
• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2009

In the paper

“such as more negative social consequences from drinking (Mulia, Ye, Greenfield, & Zemore, 2009)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2009

In the paper

“We theorize that this effect is due to the complex interaction of residential discrimination, racism, age of drinking, and lack of available standard life reinforcers (e.g., stable employment and financial stability).”

In the paper

“there is a robust overall group finding of lower rates of alcohol consumption and higher rates of abstinence among African Americans compared to European Americans across development. Moreover, these findings remained consistent, showing lower rates of drinking among African Americans, regardless of the methodology used in defining alcohol consumption”

In the paper

“although it is true that disadvantaged social status is associated with higher risk of mental disorders”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2005a
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2005b

In the paper

“African American culture is characterized by norms against heavy alcohol use or intoxication”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1997a
• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1999

In the paper

“Among those who do drink, compared to European Americans, African Americans also generally report drinking less frequently and consuming smaller amounts of alcohol across almost all age groups”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a
• Not checked yetcites Galvan & Caetano, 2003
• Not checked yetcites SAMHSA, 2010, 2011

In the paper

“but which also provides within group social disapproval when use does occur”

In the paper

“while it has been generally understood that there are health benefits from consuming light to moderate levels of alcohol (Byles, Young, Furuya, & Parkinson, 2006), these findings do not seem to hold among African Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Byles et al., 2006

In the paper

“Thus, it appears to be the case that African Americans drink less than European Americans for a combination of historical, contextual, cultural, and, perhaps, genetic reasons”

In the paper

“Records of alcohol use dating back to pre-colonial Africa indicate that the misuse of alcohol was a rare occurrence among tribal African communities.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Christmon, 1995
• Not checked yetcites Harper, 1976
• Not checked yetcites James & Johnson, 1996

In the paper

“ADH variants that metabolize alcohol more quickly and ALDH variants that metabolize acetaldehyde more slowly have been found to offer protection against alcohol dependence and heavy alcohol use”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Luczak, Glatt, & Wall, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Whitfield, 2002

In the paper

“At the group level, it has been consistently shown that African Americans report higher levels of religiosity (e.g., holding religious beliefs, attending religious services, and prayer) than European Americans”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brown et al., 2001
• Not checked yetcites Chatters, 2000
• Not checked yetcites Chatters, Taylor, Bullard, & Jackson, 2008

In the paper

“There is also evidence for the protective effects of the allele against alcohol dependence among African Americans based on both national (the Collaborative Study of the Genetics of Alcoholism, or COGA: Edenberg et al., 2006) and smaller community samples (n=150; Luo et al., 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Edenberg et al., 2006
• Not checked yetcites Luo et al., 2006

In the paper

“evidence appears to show that moderate consumption is associated with an increased rate of hypertension and the development of coronary calcification for African American men”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fuchs et al., 2001
• Not checked yetcites Pletcher et al., 2005

In the paper

“the growth of the African American church during this time also had a significant influence on the drinking behaviors of African Americans by promoting abstinence and moderate drinking patterns”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites James & Johnson, 1996

In the paper

“The strong presence of religion, whether Christian, Muslim, or another faith, within the African American community may help explain mean group level differences in rates of drinking and abstinence from alcohol between African Americans and European Americans”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Steinman & Zimmerman, 2004
• Not checked yetcites Taylor et al., 1999
• Not checked yetcites Wallace et al., 2003b

In the paper

“That history has combined with the present day experience of African Americans in the United States, characterized by high levels of scrutiny by European Americans and high levels of social sanction against boisterous behavior which together have led to lower average levels of alcohol consumption for African Americans as a group (Bonilla-Silva, 1997; Herd, 1997a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bonilla-Silva, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1997a

In the paper

“most studies have found higher rates of dependence symptoms”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998b
• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2009

In the paper

“Discrepancies in findings concerning the influence of racial discrimination on drinking among African Americans may also be due to the inclusion or exclusion of other covarying factors associated with drinking, such as racial identity, religiosity, and level of distress”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gibbons et al., 2010
• Not checked yetcites Kwate et al., 2003
• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2008

In the paper

“Herd (1994) reported that African American men were more likely to report negative drinking consequences (e.g., dependence symptoms, problems with friends, and problems with relatives), even after accounting for drinking behavior, socioeconomic status and other social variables.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd (1994)

In the paper

“Racism has been conceptualized as a chronic stressor in the lives of African Americans (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999

In the paper

“Landrine and Klonoff (1996) found that 98% of the African American adults sampled reported that they had experienced a racist event during the past year.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Landrine and Klonoff (1996)

In the paper

“African Americans appear to experience greater and more severe alcohol-related problems for drinking than European Americans who are drinking at comparative levels.”

In the paper

“Racial discrimination has also been identified as an important source of stress influencing health and psychological well-being (Kessler et al., 1999; Ren, Amick, & Williams, 1999; Williams & Mohammed, 2009; Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003; Williams, Yu, Jackson, & Anderson, 1997), including drinking problems among African Americans (Caetano et al., 1998; Caetano & Clark, 2000; Herd, 1994a;”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 1999
• Not checked yetcites Caetano et al., 1998
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1994a

In the paper

“Furthermore, the amount of physical shelf space in convenient stores allotted for alcohol display is higher in minority and low-income neighborhoods (Bluthenthal et al., 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bluthenthal et al., 2008

In the paper

“One implication of a racialized social system is that the same behavior can be viewed differently as a function of one’s race. Thus, moderate drinking may not be viewed as problematic when engaged in by European American drinkers, but may be regarded as a source of concern when engaged in by African American drinkers.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bonilla-Silva (1997)

In the paper

“Among all other ethnic minorities within the United States, African Americans tend to report experiencing markedly higher incidences of discrimination compared to the other groups (Landrine, Klonoff, Corral, Fernandez, & Roesch, 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Landrine, Klonoff, Corral, Fernandez, & Roesch, 2006

In the paper

“Thus, it may be the case that studies showing higher rates of negative consequences from drinking, even at lower levels of use (e.g., Mulia et al., 2009), may be in part due to the higher likelihood of African Americans getting “in trouble” due to their skin color rather than their blood alcohol content (BAC) or behavior.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2009

In the paper

“Thus, the higher probability of experiencing negative consequences from drinking for African Americans despite lower or equivalent use may be partly due to the racial structure of American society.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bonilla-Silva (1997)

In the paper

“It has also been observed that African Americans are more likely to be arrested for being intoxicated than European Americans regardless of the amount of alcohol consumed (Brown & Frank, 2006; Park, 1983 cited in Herd, 1994a; Neuspiel, 1996).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brown & Frank, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Park, 1983 cited in Herd, 1994a
• Not checked yetcites Neuspiel, 1996

In the paper

“These concerns appear to be accurate, with evidence indicating that for African Americans who do consume alcohol, the higher concentration of liquor stores in African American neighborhoods is significantly associated with at-risk alcohol consumption (James & Johnson, 1996; Theall et al., 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites James & Johnson, 1996
• Not checked yetcites Theall et al., 2011

In the paper

“Similarly, Kwate and colleagues (2003) found that among African American women, those who experienced less racism were more likely to be drinkers.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kwate and colleagues (2003)

In the paper

“Additionally, drinking in low-income neighborhoods can also place African Americans at increased risk for experiencing negative consequences from drinking compared to European Americans who drink in similar contexts (Caetano & Herd, 1988 cited in Jones-Webb et al., 1995; Jones-Webb et al., 1997a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Herd, 1988 cited in Jones-Webb et al., 1995
• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb et al., 1997a

In the paper

“Martin and colleagues (2004) found that among employed African American men, those who reported high levels of economic distress and who perceived racial discrimination were significantly more likely to engage in stress related drinking and problem drinking behaviors.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Martin and colleagues (2004)

In the paper

“It may be the case that some of the alcohol dependence symptoms endorsed by African Americans are related to social disapproval of this kind.”

In the paper

“Indeed, Herd (1994a) found that the specific negative social consequences most commonly reported by African Americans were within-group social consequences, such as more disagreements with family and friends, trouble with one’s spouse, and disapproval of one’s drinking by peers.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd (1994a)

In the paper

“To date, there have been no large population-based studies that have found a relationship between ethnic differences in alcoholic beverage preference and risk for alcohol related problems.”

In the paper

“As stated earlier, the African American community generally holds norms of restricted use of alcohol with discouragement of drunkenness and intoxication (Borker et al., 1980; Herd, 1997a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Borker et al., 1980
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1997a

In the paper

“Because expectancies are understood to represent summaries of individuals’ learning histories (Bolles, 1972; Goldman, 1999; Goldman, Brown, Christiansen, & Smith., 1991), it appears that individuals with this allele may be experiencing these effects more strongly and more quickly than others, given the faster ethanol metabolism rate for these individuals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bolles, 1972
• Not checked yetcites Goldman, 1999
• Not checked yetcites Goldman, Brown, Christiansen, & Smith., 1991

In the paper

“The expression of more intoxicated behaviors by some African Americans, in the face of (a) more negative within-group social consequences from intoxication and (b) more frequent surveillance of alcohol-related behaviors engaged in by African Americans on the part of law enforcement officials, may contribute to higher levels of alcohol-related problems for those African American drinkers with the”

In the paper

“It follows that African Americans who do engage in heavier drinking would be subject to greater within-group negative social consequences.”

In the paper

“Thus, to the degree that African Americans consume alcohol outdoors, and to the degree that such behavior is deemed as inappropriate or excessive, drinking among this group could result in more negative consequences from drinking (e.g., citations from law enforcement) (LaVeist & Wallace, 2000; Park, 1983).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites LaVeist & Wallace, 2000
• Not checked yetcites Park, 1983

In the paper

“This phenomenon appears in part to be due to the cultural norm that African Americans are more likely to drink in public, such as on street corners, compared to European Americans (Herd & Grube, 1993; Nyaronga, Greenfield, & McDaniel, 2009; Stewart & Power, 2002)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd & Grube, 1993
• Not checked yetcites Nyaronga, Greenfield, & McDaniel, 2009
• Not checked yetcites Stewart & Power, 2002

In the paper

“coupled with data indicating that police surveillance is more common in low-income African American neighborhoods than in low-income European American neighborhoods (Conley, 1994; Mastrofski, Parks, Reiss, & Worden, 1999).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Conley, 1994
• Not checked yetcites Mastrofski, Parks, Reiss, & Worden, 1999

In the paper

“African Americans have been identified as one of the biggest consumers of malt liquor (Miller Brewing Company, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miller Brewing Company, 2001

In the paper

“Based on this research, it may be the case that stronger expectancies experienced among African Americans with ADH1B*3 may result in more overt behaviors associated with intoxication, even at lower levels of use (Ehlers et al., 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003

In the paper

“There is evidence that individuals with the ADH1B*3 allele who drink alcohol are more likely to report more positive expectancies for drinking, such as expectancies for enhanced sexual performance, physical/social pleasure, and increased social assertiveness (Ehlers et al., 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003

In the paper

“These increases in stimulation were more strongly associated with higher levels of alcohol related problems, such as legal problems, blackouts, and trouble with friends for the African American participants compared to the European American participants.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pedersen and McCarthy (2012)

In the paper

“Thus, it appears to be the case that one influence on individual differences in drinking among African Americans is variation within that group in the motive to drink to cope with distress (Harper, 1999; Martin, Tuch, & Roman, 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Harper, 1999
• Not checked yetcites Martin, Tuch, & Roman, 2003

In the paper

“It is also possible that African Americans’ increased risk for mortality from liver cirrhosis (Greenfield, 2001; Stinson et al., 1993; Yoon et al., 2001) may involve the ADH1B*3 allele.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Greenfield, 2001
• Not checked yetcites Stinson et al., 1993
• Not checked yetcites Yoon et al., 2001

In the paper

“Their stronger reaction to alcohol may lead to more alcohol-related problems, because their quicker, more intense behavior changes could result in social disapproval, both within and outside the African American community.”

In the paper

“These findings suggest the possibility that some African Americans may have a heightened sensitivity to alcohol that result in more pronounced negative effects and negative consequences from drinking at comparable and potentially even at lower levels of use.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003
• Not checked yetcites Pedersen & McCarthy, 2012

In the paper

“Second, as indicated by findings from both national and community based randomized samples, cultural norms within the African American community of limited alcohol use, low tolerance for intoxication, and conservative attitudes towards drinking may result in more negative social consequences from drinking from within their own racial group than is true for European Americans (Herd, 1994a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1994a

In the paper

“First, based on a relatively small number of genetic studies using laboratory analogue designs, it appears that some African Americans may have a higher biological sensitivity to alcohol, which results in a more intense reaction to alcohol at lower quantities of use (Ehlers et al., 2003; Pedersen & McCarthy, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003
• Not checked yetcites Pedersen & McCarthy, 2012

In the paper

“African Americans vary in their risk for problem drinking as a function of genetic vulnerability, demographic factors, environmental factors, and learning history.”

In the paper

“Studies on adolescent motives for drinking suggest that alcohol consumption among African Americans appears to be rooted in regulation of negative mood (Bradizza, Reifman, & Barnes, 1999; Brannock, Schandler, & Oncley, 1990).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bradizza, Reifman, & Barnes, 1999
• Not checked yetcites Brannock, Schandler, & Oncley, 1990

In the paper

“Moreover, recent work by Pedersen and McCarthy (2012) found that African Americans experienced a sharper increase in stimulation on the ascending limb compared to European Americans at the same dose of alcohol administered.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pedersen and McCarthy (2012)

In the paper

“They found that African American male participants experienced sharper increases in stimulation on the ascending limb of the blood alcohol curve compared to African American females at a moderate dose of alcohol.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pedersen and McCarthy (2009)

In the paper

“Some of these risk factors (e.g., sex, family history, peer use, expectancies) have similar associations with drinking for African Americans as for European Americans.”

In the paper

“More broadly, children with a family history of alcohol or drug dependence are more likely to follow various deviant pathways, one of which is alcohol use (Hesselbrock & Hesselbrock, 2006; Moss, Lynch, & Hardie, 2003; Sher, Grekin, & Williams, 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hesselbrock & Hesselbrock, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Moss, Lynch, & Hardie, 2003
• Not checked yetcites Sher, Grekin, & Williams, 2005

In the paper

“Specifically, Bossarte and Swahn (2008) found that adolescents who live in households with less parental supervision are more likely to engage in deviant behaviors and use substances.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bossarte and Swahn (2008)

In the paper

“It should be noted that there is evidence that the converse is also true; perceiving less substance use among one’s peer group is associated with a lower probability of binge drinking (Stevens-Watkins & Rostosky, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Stevens-Watkins & Rostosky, 2010

In the paper

“Moreover, African Americans who are more immersed in African American culture (Klonoff & Landrine, 1999), have a strong preference for African American people, and a strong connection to their families (Herd & Grube, 1996) are more likely to be abstainers.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Klonoff & Landrine, 1999
• Not checked yetcites Herd & Grube, 1996

In the paper

“Likewise, greater parental monitoring is associated with decreased substance use among African American youth (Rai et al., 2003; Stanton et al., 2002; Tebes et al., 2011; Wallace & Muroff, 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rai et al., 2003
• Not checked yetcites Stanton et al., 2002
• Not checked yetcites Tebes et al., 2011

In the paper

“Holding strong Africentric world views (e.g., values, beliefs, behaviors, and consciousness deriving from an African cultural heritage) has also been associated with reduced risk of alcohol use.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brook & Pahl, 2005

In the paper

“Ethnic identity, defined variously as self-identification with one’s ethnic group; the sense of belonging and attachment to such a group; the perceptions, behaviors, and feelings one has due to such membership; and involvement in the cultural and social practices of the group (Phinney & Kohatsu, 1997), has been associated with lower levels of substance use (Brook & Pahl, 2005; Szapocznik, Prado,”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brook & Pahl, 2005
• Not checked yetcites Szapocznik, Prado, Burlew, Williams, & Santisteban, 2007

In the paper

“In general, the extent to which an adolescent’s peers engage in deviant behavior and substance use significantly influences the likelihood that the teen will also engage in such behaviors (Epstein, Botvin, Baker, & Diaz, 1999; Epstein, Williams, & Botvin, 2002; Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005; Li, Barrera, Hops, & Fischer, 2002; Nasim et al., 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Epstein, Botvin, Baker, & Diaz, 1999
• Not checked yetcites Epstein, Williams, & Botvin, 2002
• Not checked yetcites Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005

In the paper

“Specifically, the authors found that for every unit decrease in the perception of best friend’s substance use, the probability of binge drinking in high school among African American males decreased by 85%.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Stevens-Watkins & Rostosky, 2010

In the paper

“Similar findings were reported by Wallace and colleagues (1999a) for African American youth; these authors also found that the prevalence of alcohol use decreased as a function of how many parents were present in the African American adolescent’s home.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wallace and colleagues (1999a)

In the paper

“It is thought that due to the higher level of constraints placed on youth by their parents, parental influence may in fact be a stronger determinant of drug use than peer influence for African American youth compared to other racial groups (Clark, Belgrave, & Abell, 2012; Wallace & Muroff, 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Clark, Belgrave, & Abell, 2012
• Not checked yetcites Wallace & Muroff, 2002

In the paper

“Ethnic identity has also been identified as a buffer against substance use by mitigating the effects of racial discrimination on perceived stress, depression, problem behavior, involvement with deviant peers, and psychological well-being (Greene, Way, & Pahl, 2006; Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, 2003; Stock, Gibbons, Walsh, & Gerrard, 2011; Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Greene, Way, & Pahl, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, 2003
• Not checked yetcites Stock, Gibbons, Walsh, & Gerrard, 2011

In the paper

“are more likely to hold negative views towards drugs, including alcohol (Belgrave et al., 1994; Belgrave, Townsend, Cherry, & Cunningham, 1997; Belgrave et al., 2000) than are other African Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Belgrave et al., 1994
• Not checked yetcites Belgrave, Townsend, Cherry, & Cunningham, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Belgrave et al., 2000

In the paper

“African Americans who hold stronger Africentric world views are less likely to use alcohol (Brook & Pahl, 2005)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brook & Pahl, 2005

In the paper

“Moreover, among adolescents who drink heavily, African American youth are significantly more likely than their European American peers to be concerned about their parents’ disapproval of their drinking alcohol (Ringwalt & Palmer, 1990).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ringwalt & Palmer, 1990

In the paper

“For example, Bossarte and Swahn (2008) reported that for African American youth, exposure to violence within the home before the age of ten was associated with a threefold increase in the probability of early initiation of alcohol use.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bossarte and Swahn (2008)

In the paper

“It has been shown that having a positive family history of alcohol dependence or problem drinking increases risk for adolescent alcohol use and dependence symptoms (Chassin, Rogosch, & Barrera, 1991; Sher, 1991; Sher, Walitzer, Wood, & Brent, 1991).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Chassin, Rogosch, & Barrera, 1991
• Not checked yetcites Sher, 1991
• Not checked yetcites Sher, Walitzer, Wood, & Brent, 1991

In the paper

“Religious participation does also appear to be stronger among women (Barna, 2010), particularly within the African American community (Levin & Taylor, 1993; Levin, Taylor, & Chatters, 1994; Taylor, 1992; Taylor et al., 1999).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Barna, 2010
• Not checked yetcites Levin & Taylor, 1993
• Not checked yetcites Taylor et al., 1999

In the paper

“Nonetheless, African American men are, as a whole, at greater risk for problem drinking than are African American women.”

In the paper

“African American women tend to drink significantly less than African American men (SAMHSA, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites SAMHSA, 2009

In the paper

“Herd (1990) found the highest rates of heavy drinking among very low-income African American men (incomes between $10,001 and $15,000).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1990

In the paper

“Studies of very poor individuals that differentiate among levels of poverty indicate that extremely poor African American men appear to be at markedly elevated risk for alcohol abuse (e.g., Ford et al., 2007; Gilman et al., 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ford et al., 2007
• Not checked yetcites Gilman et al., 2008

In the paper

“African American women also reported higher rates of abstinence (i.e., drink less than once a year or have never drunk: 55%) compared to African American men (36%).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

In the paper

“holding strong Africentric beliefs was associated with later age of onset, lower lifetime use, less peer risk behaviors (i.e., having fewer peers that engaged in risky behaviors) and reduced effect of peer pressure on initiation”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007

In the paper

“Thus, there appears to be something specific about this subgroup of African American men that places them at higher risk of drinking, even despite their reduced income.”

In the paper

“religiosity has also been shown to buffer the impact negative life events have on heavy drinking behaviors among youth in seventh through tenth grade (Wills et al., 2003b).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wills et al., 2003b

In the paper

“Holding religious beliefs appears to provide additional protection, helping to identify those African Americans who are at reduced risk for alcohol or substance use (Brook & Pahl, 2005; Nasim et al., 2007; Stevens-Watkins & Rostosky, 2010; Zimmerman & Maton, 1992).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brook & Pahl, 2005
• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007
• Not checked yetcites Stevens-Watkins & Rostosky, 2010

In the paper

“However, the opposite appears to be true for a subset of African American men (e.g., Jones-Webb et al., 1995; Jones-Webb et al., 1997).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb et al., 1995
• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb et al., 1997

In the paper

“holding strong Africentric beliefs was associated with later age of onset, lower lifetime use, less peer risk behaviors (i.e., having fewer peers that engaged in risky behaviors) and reduced effect of peer pressure on initiation”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007

In the paper

“holding strong Africentric beliefs was associated with later age of onset, lower lifetime use, less peer risk behaviors (i.e., having fewer peers that engaged in risky behaviors) and reduced effect of peer pressure on initiation”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007

In the paper

“Belgrave and colleagues (1997) found that among at-risk African American youth from an inner city population, those with greater spiritual beliefs (i.e., attending religious services and discussing religion or spiritual topics within the home) reported less drug use than those with fewer spiritual beliefs.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Belgrave et al., 1997

In the paper

“Caetano and Clark (1998a) found that 21% of African American men compared to 10% of African American women reported drinking at least one drink in the past year.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

In the paper

“African American men in lower socioeconomic classes (i.e., greater than 20% below the poverty line) were significantly more likely than comparably poor African American women (and European American men) to report greater numbers of negative drinking consequences, including problems in areas such as legal charges, finances, health, family, and work (Jones-Webb et al., 1997a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb et al., 1997a

In the paper

“Herd and Grube (1996) found that high levels of Black awareness and greater involvement in Black social networks was associated with reduced drinking and reduced heavy drinking among African Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd and Grube, 1996

In the paper

“Barr and colleagues (1993) found similar results: African American men who were severely impoverished (annual family income less than $15,000) were significantly more likely to report high levels of alcohol consumption than were African American women (and, interestingly, European Americans) at similar incomes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Barr et al., 1993

In the paper

“holding strong Africentric beliefs was associated with later age of onset, lower lifetime use, less peer risk behaviors (i.e., having fewer peers that engaged in risky behaviors) and reduced effect of peer pressure on initiation”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007

In the paper

“adolescents with strong ethnic identities were less likely to engage in heavy drinking even with increases in peer drinking behaviors”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007

In the paper

“McKinnon (2003) reported that 43% of African American families were maintained by women with no spouse present compared to 9% that were maintained solely by men.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites McKinnon, 2003