Less drinking, yet more problems: understanding African American drinking and related problems

In the paper

“Researchers have found that, compared to European Americans, African Americans report later initiation of drinking, lower rates of use, and lower levels of use across almost all age groups.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a
• Not checked yetcites Galvan & Caetano, 2003
• Not checked yetcites SAMHSA, 2010, 2011

In the paper

“Compared to European Americans, African Americans are more likely to live in poverty, be unemployed, and have lower educational attainment (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012; Williams, Mohammed, Leavell, & Collins, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites U.S. Census Bureau, 2012
• Not checked yetcites Williams, Mohammed, Leavell, & Collins, 2010

In the paper

“In studies that exclude abstainers, there is evidence to suggest that African Americans are more likely to develop and die from liver cirrhosis and other alcohol-related causes compared to European Americans”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Galvan & Caetano, 2003
• Not checked yetcites Grant, 1997
• Not checked yetcites Greenfield, 2001

In the paper

“being an African American is not associated with increased risk (Kessler, Berglund, Demler, Jin, Merikangas, & Walters, 2005a; Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005b). In fact, the opposite appears to be true: being African American has been found to be associated with a reduced risk of mental disorder diagnosis”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2005a
• Not checked yetcites Kessler et al., 2005b
• Not checked yetcites Riolo et al., 2005

In the paper

“Conley (1994) reported that African American youth were more likely to get arrested for alcohol use compared to their European American peers, due, in part, to racial biases within law enforcement.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Conley, 1994

In the paper

“These factors combine with the apparent presence of a protective genetic factor (the ADH1B*3 allele), which appears to reduce risk by accelerating the rate of metabolism of alcohol for some African Americans (Ehlers et al., 2003).”

• Also stated in: § Historical Perspective · hedged

  “the limited research conducted does suggest the allele offers protection against alcoholism among African Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003

In the paper

“Research conducted within the past two decades, based on both national randomized and community convenience samples, has documented several culturally specific protective factors within the African American community related to reduced risk for alcoholism, such as more conservative norms and attitudes towards alcohol use, higher levels of parental monitoring of youth’s substance use behaviors, and”

In the paper

“There appears to be a distinction between past year dependence and lifetime, showing that African Americans appear to report lower endorsement of alcohol dependence when the criterion is lifetime dependence, but higher rates when the time frame is past year.”

In the paper

“African culture has been characterized by cultural restraints against heavy consumption: for many hundreds of years, it has not been normative to drink heavily in this cultural group (Christmon, 1995).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Christmon, 1995

In the paper

“During the period of slavery in the United States, alcohol use continued to be limited among African American slaves. In part due to external pressure and control (i.e., laws prohibiting alcohol use; slave owners restricting access and use), slaves became even less likely to drink alcohol, with abstinence becoming the norm”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Christmon, 1995
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1991

In the paper

“Three specific aspects of the African American family have been identified as protective factors against alcohol use among African American youth: providing more restricted access to alcohol, engaging in higher levels of parental monitoring of adolescent behaviors, and higher rates of sanctioning use”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites James & Johnson, 1996

In the paper

“There is evidence that the ADH1B*3 allele is present almost exclusively within individuals of African descent and has been estimated to be present in up to one-third of African Americans”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003
• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2001
• Not checked yetcites Luo et al., 2006

In the paper

“Mulia and colleagues (2009) also found higher rates of negative social consequences from drinking and of alcohol dependence symptoms among African Americans than among European Americans, at almost all levels of drinking, with the most pronounced differences observed at low levels of drinking.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mulia et al., 2009

In the paper

“As has been true historically, for African Americans there continue to be relatively conservative norms for drinking across situations today, as well as relatively conservative attitudes toward consumption.”

In the paper

“Studies, though smaller scale convenience samples, have shown that the ADH1B*3 allele is associated with stronger positive alcohol expectancies (Ehlers et al, 2003), more pronounced physiological effects of alcohol (McCarthy et al., 2010), and negative family history of alcohol dependence (Ehlers et al., 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2003
• Not checked yetcites McCarthy et al., 2010
• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2001

In the paper

“LaVeist and Wallace (2000) found that after controlling for socioeconomic status, African American residential communities had eight times as many liquor stores per capita as predominately European American communities, and the venues were often located in close proximity to African American churches, hospitals, schools, homes and recreational parks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites LaVeist and Wallace (2000)

In the paper

“Jones-Webb and colleagues (1997b) reported that among drinkers, although increased alcohol consumption is associated with increased negative drinking consequences (e.g., financial, health, family, work, legal problems or alcohol dependence symptoms) for European American men, there is no relationship for African American men; regardless of amount consumed, African American men are more likely to”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb and colleagues (1997b)

In the paper

“Broman (2007) found that although African American college students reported perceiving themselves as more exposed to discriminatory experiences than their European American peers, they were no more likely to engage in drinking behaviors in response to experiencing discrimination.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Broman (2007)

In the paper

“Thus, although African Americans are less likely to drink, for those African Americans who do consume alcohol, greater access to alcohol beverages may place them at higher risk for engaging in heavy or risky drinking behaviors.”

In the paper

“These studies suggest that although African Americans as a group drink less than European Americans, those African Americans who report more experiences of discrimination are at greater risk for problem drinking than are other African Americans.”

In the paper

“Bonilla-Silva (1997) proposed a theory for the disproportionate level of negative consequences among African Americans. He argued that this effect is due to what he called the “racialized social system” in American society.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bonilla-Silva (1997)

In the paper

“However, not all studies have found a positive association between alcohol use and discrimination. For example, Borrell and colleagues (2007) found no relationship between drinking and self-reported experiences of discrimination among young African American adults.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Borrell and colleagues (2007)

In the paper

“Although African Americans, as a whole, drink less than European Americans, alcohol venues are more prevalent in African American communities (Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2002; Jones-Webb et al., 2008) and lower-income neighborhoods (Bluthenthal et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2002; LaVeist & Wallace, 2000; Romley, Cohen, Ringel, & Sturm, 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2002
• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb et al., 2008
• Not checked yetcites Bluthenthal et al., 2008

In the paper

“Another possibility is that African Americans may be more likely to underestimate the amount of alcohol they consume, thus indicating a lower level of consumption than is actually the case (Kaskutas & Graves, 2000; Kerr, Patterson, & Greenfield, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kaskutas & Graves, 2000
• Not checked yetcites Kerr, Patterson, & Greenfield, 2009

In the paper

“Compared to lager beer, malt liquor is less expensive, has a higher alcohol content, is typically sold in larger containers (i.e., 40 oz versus 12 oz), and is packaged so that it cannot be resealed, providing a strong message to consume the beverage in one sitting (Bradizza, Collins, Vincent, & Falco, 2006; Chen & Paschall, 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bradizza, Collins, Vincent, & Falco, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Chen & Paschall, 2003

In the paper

“However and not surprisingly, there is evidence for considerable variability in preferred alcoholic beverages among African Americans, suggesting a limited role for malt-liquor in explaining alcohol related problem rates among African Americans (Bradizza et al., 2006; Chen & Paschall, 2003; National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), 2000; Sempos et al., 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bradizza et al., 2006
• Not checked yetcites Chen & Paschall, 2003
• Not checked yetcites NIAAA, 2000

In the paper

“Moreover, malt liquor is readily available and heavily marketed in low-income African American neighborhoods (Bradizza et al., 2006; Duncan et al., 2002; Herd, 2000; Jones-Webb et al., 1997a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bradizza et al., 2006
• Not checked yetcites Duncan et al., 2002
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 2000

In the paper

“Bradizza and colleagues (2006) studied a small sample of 53 young adults (43% African American), and found that among the entire sample, relatively few reported experiencing problems as a result of consuming malt liquor and no ethnic differences were found among those who did report problems from drinking malt liquor.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bradizza and colleagues (2006)

In the paper

“Thus, even though presence of the allele could protect against progression to heavier consumption, it may increase risk for problems stemming from even moderate consumption.”

In the paper

“For example, Kerr and colleagues (2009) found when examining the type, quantity, and frequency of alcohol consumption based on ethnicity and sex, African American men were the most likely to underestimate their intake, by 31%, and had the largest overall mean drink alcohol content at 0.79 oz of alcohol, compared to 0.66 oz for the European American men sampled.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kerr and colleagues (2009)

In the paper

“Although some studies have found no relationship between positive expectancies and drinking onset for African American youth (Chartier, Hesselbrock, & Hesselbrock, 2009), most studies have found a positive relationship that is often comparable in magnitude to what has been observed among European Americans (Flory, Lynam, Milich, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004; McCarthy, Miller, Smith, & Smith, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Chartier, Hesselbrock, & Hesselbrock, 2009
• Not checked yetcites Flory, Lynam, Milich, Leukefeld, & Clayton, 2004
• Not checked yetcites McCarthy, Miller, Smith, & Smith, 2001

In the paper

“There are other risk factors that are likely to be more important for the African American community (i.e., ethnic identity, Africentrism, and exposure to discrimination) than to the European American community.”

In the paper

“A substantial body of research with general population samples has demonstrated that positive alcohol expectancies predict increased drinking (Barnow et al., 2004; Cumsille, Sayer, & Graham, 2000; Ouellette, Gerrard, Gibbons, & Reis-Bergan,, 1999; Settles, Cyders, & Smith, 2010; Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, & Christiansen, 1995) and the onset of adolescent problem drinking (Christiansen, Smith, Roeh”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Barnow et al., 2004
• Not checked yetcites Cumsille, Sayer, & Graham, 2000
• Not checked yetcites Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, & Christiansen, 1995

In the paper

“Donovan (2004) reported that adolescents are at a greater risk of alcohol initiation if they are living with stepparents versus intact families, if their immediate family members use substances, if they perceive parental approval or less parental disapproval of teen drinking, if they perceive lower levels of parental support, or if they perceive greater levels of parental alcohol and drug use.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Donovan (2004)

In the paper

“Ehlers and colleagues (2007) found that in their sample of Afro-Trinidadian participants the ADH1B*3 allele served as a protective factor against alcoholism; however, among those individuals who did become alcohol dependent, the allele was associated with an enhanced risk for liver disease.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers and colleagues (2007)

In the paper

“Overall, it appears to be the case that at least some African American youth who have learned to associate drinking with positive consequences are more likely to drink and to drink heavily compared to African Americans who hold fewer positive expectancies about alcohol; however, this effect may depend on whether or not they experience conduct problems during childhood.”

In the paper

“Perhaps this occurs both because of extra tight controls over African American behavior by the dominant culture, and perhaps also because the same level of alcohol consumption is likely to lead to more impairment for some African Americans than for European Americans.”

In the paper

“Jones-Webb (1998) found that even though African American women were less likely to drink, stress had a direct and positive relationship with their drinking, especially for those who cope with stress primarily through avoidance.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones-Webb (1998)

In the paper

“It has been observed that African Americans report higher rates of negative consequences related to drinking compared to European Americans (studies reviewed are detailed in Table 4); this finding is particularly noteworthy because it occurs even at lower levels of use.”

In the paper

“Amongst African Americans, studies have consistently shown that those who strongly identify with African American culture are less likely to consume alcohol (Brook, Brook, & Pahl, 2006; Burlew, Neely, & Johnson, 2000; Caldwell, Sellers, Bernat, & Zimmerman, 2004; Herd & Grube, 1996; Klonoff & Landrine, 1999; Martin, Tuch, Roman, & Dixon, 2004; Nasim, Belgrave, Jaqgers, Wilson, & Owens, 2007) and”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brook, Brook, & Pahl, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Burlew, Neely, & Johnson, 2000
• Not checked yetcites Caldwell, Sellers, Bernat, & Zimmerman, 2004

In the paper

“For example, Jones and colleagues (2008) found no main effect for whether an adolescent consumed alcohol based on his or her parents’ level of use. However, adolescents whose peers use alcohol are at the greatest risk for drinking if their parents experienced problems from drinking and the least risk if their parents experienced few problems from drinking. This effect was observed for African”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jones and colleagues (2008)

In the paper

“Bossarte and Swahn (2008) found that African American youth who reported that a few of their peers drank were 2.95 times more likely to drink than those whose peers did not drink; those who reported that most of their peers drank were 8.29 times more likely to drink.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bossarte and Swahn (2008)

In the paper

“Specifically, peer substance use is positively associated with early age of initiation (D’Amico & McCarthy, 2006; Fite, Colder, & O’Connor, 2006; Li, Barrera, Hops, & Fischer, 2006), lifetime use (Rohde, Lewinsohn & Seeley, 1996), current use (Kuntshe & Jordan, 2006), heavy use or binge drinking (Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005; Sher & Rutledge, 2007) and other alcohol abuse disorders (Moss et al.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites D’Amico & McCarthy, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Fite, Colder, & O’Connor, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Li, Barrera, Hops, & Fischer, 2006

In the paper

“national survey research on heavy drinking found that for African American men, heavy drinking remained steady (although lower than European American levels) for ages 18–49, peaked during the ages 50–59, and did not drop off until the early 60s (Herd, 1990).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1990

In the paper

“Herd and Grube (1996) found that high levels of Black awareness and greater involvement in Black social networks was associated with reduced drinking and reduced heavy drinking among African Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Herd and Grube, 1996

In the paper

“African American women are consistently found to report lower levels of use and higher rates of abstinence compared to African American men (e.g., Caetano & Clark, 1998a; Ford et al., 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a
• Not checked yetcites Ford et al., 2007

In the paper

“Others have reported similar findings, suggesting that African Americans who are both male and have lower income are most likely to engage in heavy or problematic drinking behaviors and experience the most problems related to use (James & Johnson, 1996; Wallace, 1999a, 1999b; Welte & Barnes, 1992).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites James & Johnson, 1996
• Not checked yetcites Wallace, 1999a, 1999b
• Not checked yetcites Welte & Barnes, 1992

In the paper

“The developmental trajectory for drinking among African American men has been shown to differ significantly from their female counterparts, as well as from the drinking trajectories of male European Americans.”

In the paper

“Given that religious involvement is associated with lower rates of alcohol consumption, it is possible that sex differences in religious involvement contribute to sex differences in drinking behavior.”

In the paper

“For African American men, heavy drinking is associated with older age (Caetano, 1984; Caetano & Clark, 1998a; Caetano et al., 1998; Herd, 1990), and thus becomes more frequent than what is observed among other groups (i.e., African American women and European American men) as they age.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano, 1984
• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a
• Not checked yetcites Herd, 1990

In the paper

“When considered together, both ethnic identity and Africentric world views appear to operate as protective factors (Nasim et al., 2007)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Nasim et al., 2007

In the paper

“the isolation of poor African Americans from others during the deindustrialization period of the 1970s resulted in less frequent interactions with individuals or family members who resided in more stable urban areas or in the suburbs.”

In the paper

“Sampson and Wilson (1995) concluded that the worst urban context in which European Americans reside is significantly better than the average context of African American communities.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sampson and Wilson, 1995

In the paper

“Others have similarly noted that steady levels of drinking persist into the 50s for African American men, which is found to a much less degree for African American women (Caetano & Clark, 1998a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a

In the paper

“In the early 20th century, over 1.3 million African Americans relocated from the Southern United States to the Northern, Midwestern, and Western areas to escape hardships, prejudice, and to pursue jobs, particularly those then available in factories, due to the large increase in the manufacturing industry (Christmon, 1995; Harper, 1976; James & Johnson, 1996).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Christmon, 1995
• Not checked yetcites Harper, 1976
• Not checked yetcites James & Johnson, 1996

In the paper

“Among African Americans, there are two subgroups that have consistently shown higher rates of heavy drinking and related problems: low-income African American men and older African American men.”

In the paper

“Second, sobriety must be maintained to effectively care for one’s children.”

In the paper

“In sum, African Americans have experienced dramatically different circumstances in relation to employment, adequate housing arrangements, and overall poverty than European Americans.”

In the paper

“this lack of access to life reinforcers appears to be greater for African American men compared to their female counterparts, which places this subgroup of individuals at a heightened risk for heavy drinking and related problems.”

In the paper

“Policies were developed during this time to ensure the physical separation of African Americans from European Americans in residential areas, restricting housing options for African Americans to the least desirable residential areas (Cell, 1982; Fix & Struyk, 1993), thus leading to physical segregation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Cell, 1982
• Not checked yetcites Fix & Struyk, 1993

In the paper

“McKinnon and Humes (2000) reported that although Non-Hispanic European Americans account for approximately 70% of the total U.S. population, only one-fifth (21.7%) live in inner cities; in contrast, while African Americans account for about 12% of the total U.S. population, more than one-half of them (55%) live in inner cities.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites McKinnon and Humes, 2000

In the paper

“That role enabled them to meet basic personal needs such as for relatedness and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2002) and provided them with important incentives not to pursue the reinforcement associated with heavy alcohol consumption.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ryan & Deci, 2002

In the paper

“poor African Americans were more likely to reside in isolated poor urban neighborhoods where a majority of residents were also unemployed and impoverished, whereas poor European Americans rarely lived in such neighborhoods (Wilson, 1987).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wilson, 1987

In the paper

“lower income African Americans faced more difficulties in access to welfare or social assistance programs.”

In the paper

“According to behavioral choice theory, the behavior one engages in should be understood as representing a choice among a range of possible alternative behaviors (Rachlin, Logue, Gibbon, & Frankel, 1986).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rachlin, Logue, Gibbon, & Frankel, 1986

In the paper

“Second, because SLRs tend not to be available, heavy drinking cannot cost access to them (e.g., there is no job to lose due to drunkenness). There is reduced disincentive to drink and hence higher levels of problem drinking.”

In the paper

“because African American communities typically have a strong female presence, it is likely that many African American women care for other children, even if they are not their biological offspring (Burton et al., 1995; Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2000) and thus must maintain sobriety in order to adequately care of those who are dependent on them.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Burton et al., 1995
• Not checked yetcites Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2000

In the paper

“Pager (2003) found striking racial differences in the rate of callbacks among both convicted and non-convicted individuals: African Americans without a criminal record received callbacks 14% of the time, compared to 34% for European Americans. Among those with criminal records, rates of callbacks were 5% for African Americans compared to 17% for European Americans.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pager, 2003

In the paper

“These percentages of heavy alcohol consumption outnumber both African American women and European American men and women, especially in later adulthood (SAMSHA, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites SAMSHA, 2010

In the paper

“Poor African American men drink more, they have few disincentives to drink, they drink while older, and they tend not to utilize health care services. This subgroup of African Americans appears to be at increased risk for enduring prolonged and potentially fatal consequences from their alcohol use.”

In the paper

“African Americans are more likely than European Americans to be impoverished, 23% compared to 8%, respectively (McKinnon, 2003), and they experience unemployment rates that are twice as high (McKinnon, 2003; Stratton, 1993).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites McKinnon, 2003
• Not checked yetcites Stratton, 1993

In the paper

“Sobriety surely facilitates efforts to maintain employment, both in the short-term to retain TANF benefits and in the long-term once TANF assistance is finished.”

In the paper

“Specifically, they report more negative social consequences from drinking, higher rates of alcohol-related illness and injuries, and, possibly, higher rates of alcohol dependence diagnosis and symptoms compared to European Americans.”

In the paper

“We found clear evidence that very low income African American men appeared to be at the highest risk for heavy problematic drinking and, in turn, for experiencing the highest rate of negative problems from drinking.”

In the paper

“One important skill for adaptive functioning is to have the capacity not to respond to immediate urges or immediately available reinforcement, if doing so undermines one’s important long-term goals and interests (Davidson, 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Davidson, 2003

In the paper

“(d) possible underestimates of amount consumed by African Americans”

In the paper

“These practices have been maintained in the present day due to a combination of cultural norms and attitudes toward restricted use, high regard to religious beliefs and customs disapproving of alcohol use, and genetic vulnerability limiting the amount of alcohol necessary to experience the effects of alcohol.”

In the paper

“When, as we have argued here, circumstances are such that one does not perceive a way to pursue important, long-term interests (one sees limited access to SLRs), perhaps what is thought of as a normal developmental process of learning to pursue long-term goals does not occur in the same way.”

In the paper

“African Americans have a long history of abstinence or restricted use of alcohol dating back to African culture, pre-slavery.”

In the paper

“(c) characteristics of typical drinking contexts and the location of liquor stores”

In the paper

“We theorized that, because these men have restricted or limited access to standard life reinforcers (SLRs), such as adequate employment opportunities, financial stability, adequate housing, and responsibility for health care, they (a) are more likely to pursue the reinforcement associated with heavy drinking and (b) have fewer disincentives for such heavy drinking.”

In the paper

“These findings hold across development, with African Americans reporting lower rates of use and later initiation of drinking during adolescence, report lower rates of drinking and binge drinking during college, and report lower rates of heavy drinking into adulthood (Caetano & Clark, 1998a; Faden, 2006; Wallace et al., 2003a).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Caetano & Clark, 1998a
• Not checked yetcites Faden, 2006
• Not checked yetcites Wallace et al., 2003a

In the paper

“If findings suggesting an association between the ADH1B*3 allele and negative health complications are accurate, then the subset of these individuals who have the genetic vulnerability to alcohol are a significantly high risk of liver disease and cirrhosis (Ehlers et al., 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ehlers et al., 2007

In the paper

“Overall, there appear to be several social, biological, and behavioral factors that place African Americans at higher risk of more severe consequences from drinking than European Americans, and for some the consequences are present regardless of level of consumption.”

In the paper

“We suggest that because these factors are likely to persist over time, there is a higher rate of heavy drinking in older low-income African American men, thus placing them at further increased risk for health problems from their drinking (NIAAA, 1998).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites NIAAA, 1998

In the paper

“The second is that, overall, African Americans are less likely to have health care or utilize health services, such that if problems were to develop from use, they would be less likely to get needed treatment, resulting in higher severity and frequency of health problems from use (Schmidt et al., 2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Schmidt et al., 2007

In the paper

“Developmental science emphasizes the ongoing formation of the capacity to organize one’s behavior around important goals (Lerner, Freund, Stefanis, & Habermas, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lerner, Freund, Stefanis, & Habermas, 2001

In the paper

“Compared to their European American counterparts, African Americans, when considered as an overall group, report higher rates of abstinence and report lower rates of alcohol use based on both current and lifetime use (SAMHSA, 2010, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites SAMHSA, 2010, 2011

In the paper

“(e) a genetic vulnerability that, though protective, may result in signs of intoxication after only moderate consumption, thus triggering both within-group and societal social sanctions.”