The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 73 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 39 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review with meta-analysis.
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and measures aimed at its mitigation, such as physical distancing, have been discussed as risk factors for loneliness, which increases the risk of premature mortality and mental and physical health conditions. To ascertain whether loneliness has increased since the start of the pandemic, this study aimed to narratively and statistically synthesize relevant high-quality primary studies. This systematic review with meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (ID CRD42021246771). Searched databases were PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library/Central Register of Controlled Trials/EMBASE/CINAHL, Web of Science, the World Health Organization (WHO) COVID-19 database, supplemented by Google Scholar and citation searching (cutoff date of the systematic search December 5, 2021). Summary data from prospective research including loneliness assessments before and during the pandemic were extracted. Of 6,850 retrieved records, 34 studies (23 longitudinal, 9 pseudolongitudinal, 2 reporting both designs) on 215,026 participants were included. Risk of bias (RoB) was estimated using the risk of bias in non-randomised studies-of interventions (ROBINS-I) tool. Standardized mean differences (SMD, Hedges' g) for continuous loneliness values and logOR for loneliness prevalence rates were calculated as pooled effect size estimators in random-effects meta-analyses. Pooling studies with longitudinal designs only (overall N = 45,734), loneliness scores (19 studies, SMD = 0.27 [95% confidence interval = 0.14-0.40], Z = 4.02, p < .001, I 2 = 98%) and prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR = 0.33 [0.04-0.62], Z = 2.25, p = .02, I 2 = 96%) increased relative to prepandemic times with small effect sizes. Results were robust with respect to studies' overall RoB, pseudolongitudinal designs, timing of prepandemic assessments, and clinical populations. The heterogeneity of effects indicates a need to further investigate risk and protective factors as the pandemic progresses to inform targeted interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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In the paper
“Women were more likely to report increases in loneliness than men (Entringer & Gosling, 2021; Entringer et al., 2020; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021; Philpot et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Entringer & Gosling, 2021
- Not checked yetcites Entringer et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Niedzwiedz et al., 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Those who lived alone (Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021; Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021; McGrath et al., 2021; Okely et al., 2020; Stolz et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2020) and/or were single during the pandemic (Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021; Stone, 2020) were particularly at risk for higher levels of loneliness compared to pre-pandemic assessments”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021
- Not checked yetcites Heidinger & Richter, 2020
- Not checked yetcites Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the overall pooled effect in this study was small and the effect sizes reported by the individual studies were heterogeneous.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the fact that the meta-regression accounted for less than a third of observed variance suggests that other factors may influence the different trajectories of loneliness in the pandemic context.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main findings of the longitudinal studies were robust against results from 14 studies with serious RoB (SMD = 0.41 [95% CI: 0.11–0.71])”
- Also stated in: § Sensitivity analyses · plain
“two studies with clinical populations (SMD = 0.26 [95% CI: 0.12–0.40]), six studies with pseudo-longitudinal designs (SMD = 0.30 [95% CI: 0.17–0.42]), and two studies whose pre-pandemic assessment period overlapped with the pre-specified date cut-offs (SMD = 0.27 [95% CI: 0.14–0.39])”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Sensitivity analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Sensitivity analyses · plain
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In the paper
“This mirrors findings of the meta-regression, in which studies’ higher RoB was negatively associated with the observed effect sizes.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The during-pandemic assessments yielded higher continuous loneliness scores than the pre-pandemic assessments (SMD = 0.27 [95% CI: 0.14–0.40])”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“loneliness scores (19 studies, SMD=0.27 [95% confidence interval=0.14–0.40], Z=4.02, p<.001, I2=98%) and prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR=0.33 [0.04–0.62], Z=2.25, p=.02, I2=96%) increased relative to pre-pandemic times with small effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and prevalence rates (logOR = 0.33 [95% CI: 0.04–0.62])”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR=0.33 [0.04–0.62], Z=2.25, p=.02, I2=96%) increased relative to pre-pandemic times with small effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, the most rigorous analysis (the sensitivity analyses that included only longitudinal study designs and studies with moderate RoB) showed a larger pooled effect size than the main analyses.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, the duration between loneliness assessments was often a range and not a concrete number of days/months.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 18
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, 34 articles met the eligibility criteria”
- Also stated in: § Study Characteristics of Included Studies · plain
“Table 1 provides a summary of the main information extracted from the 34 eligible articles, totaling 215,026 participants”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Selection
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Characteristics of Included Studies · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the studies reporting comparisons of loneliness pre- and during-pandemic, only one reported an overall decrease, 18 reported an overall increase, and eight reported no change”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increases in loneliness were found both in younger participant groups, such as students (Beutel et al., 2021; Elmer et al., 2020; Entringer & Gosling, 2021; Rogers et al., 2021) and in older participant groups, such as community cohorts of senior citizens (Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Krendl & Perry, 2021; Wong et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies showing decreasing loneliness had overwhelmingly relied on pre-pandemic assessments conducted shortly before the implementation of physical distancing, while those with comparison data from months or years before the pandemic had observed increased loneliness during the pandemic”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-regression identified age, clinical populations, and studies’ overall RoB as predictors of increases in loneliness, but only overall RoB had statistically significant effects.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As some original studies failed to report on previously identified vulnerable groups (e.g., individuals living alone), these could not be tested as predictors.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies had a serious overall RoB. For ten studies (seven of which were included in the main analyses), RoB was rated as moderate”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, there was a substantial number of studies with high RoB due to confounding, whereas bias due to selective reporting of results (including effect estimates) was rare”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As included studies mainly derived from the US and Europe, whereas South America, Asia/Oceania, and Africa were underrepresented, the present findings might not be generalizable to populations not conforming to the WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) stereotype (Henrich et al., 2010).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the final model (21 studies, R2 = .29), overall RoB rating (B = −0.35 [−0.64, −0.07]) was the only significant predictor, indicating that an overall lower RoB was associated with smaller effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Additional Analysis: Meta-Regression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This is because loneliness is related to factors other than social isolation, including temporally stable characteristics of the individual (Mund et al., 2020) and their environment such as personality traits, need for contact and expectations of relationships (Qualter et al., 2015), physical and mental health, and cultural norms (Gierveld et al., 2018; Lim et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mund et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Qualter et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Gierveld et al., 2018
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bias domains included in the ROBINS-I tool (Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.2, 2021, Chapter 25, section 4) were used”
- Also stated in: § Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias · plain
“For each study and domain, the RoB was independently rated by two authors as “low”, “moderate” or “serious”. Their assessments were merged”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“which increases the risk of premature mortality and mental and physical health conditions”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“largely due to their serious impact on longevity, mental and physical health, and well-being (Fried et al., 2020; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fried et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This step was conducted independently by four members of the research group (postdoctoral/senior researchers with previous experience conducting reviews and/or meta-analyses, three psychologists (two full professors) and one medical doctor (assistant professor))”
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
“Discrepancies were resolved through discussion”
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
“Senior researchers (mathematician and medical doctor/psychologist, full professors) verified the eligibility of included studies”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Study Selection
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
In the paper
“A more recent systematic review, which included neither a meta-analysis nor a meta-regression (Buecker & Horstmann, 2021), found that longitudinal studies mainly reported increases in loneliness”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buecker & Horstmann, 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies have reported stable (Peng & Roth, 2021; Sibley et al., 2020), as well as increases (Kovacs et al., 2021; Macdonald & Hülür, 2021) and decreases (Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021) in loneliness levels”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peng & Roth, 2021
- Not checked yetcites Sibley et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Kovacs et al., 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, it remains unclear whether loneliness has increased overall since the pandemic started (e.g., Killgore et al., 2020; Sutin et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Killgore et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Sutin et al., 2020
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This systematic review with meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (ID CRD42021246771)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“The study protocol was registered before conducting the search”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Throughout the systematic review, the latest PRISMA guidelines were followed (Page et al., 2021)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Search Strategy and Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Page et al., 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ascertain the results’ robustness, a series of sensitivity analyses were performed (1) including only studies with no ‘serious’ or ‘critical’ overall RoB rating, (2) combining longitudinal and pseudo-longitudinal study designs, (3) incorporating pre-pandemic assessments that overlapped with the date cut-offs specified above, and (4) excluding clinical populations”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Summary Measures/Methods of Synthesis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis of changes in mental health, focusing on longitudinal studies and natural experiments with pre-pandemic comparisons, found no evidence of increase in loneliness (based on three studies) (Prati & Mancini, 2021)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For use in sensitivity analyses and meta-regression, an overall RoB rating was constructed (≥1 “serious” rating in any domain resulted in a “serious” overall RoB; overall “low” RoB was only present when all domains were rated “low” risk; otherwise, overall risk was considered “moderate”)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“previous research has shown that particularly sustained or chronic loneliness jeopardizes mental and physical health (Cacioppo et al., 2015; National Academies of Science, 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cacioppo et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites National Academies of Science, 2020
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The confidence in the finding that there has been an increase in loneliness – albeit small – during the pandemic is strengthened by the results of the sensitivity analyses, the inclusion of only high-quality and longitudinal research in the meta-analyses, the relatively large number of studies with a pooled sample of 45,734 participants, and the lack of any indication of publication bias”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lack of control samples unaffected by the pandemic weakens possible causal inference, making it more difficult to attribute the increase in loneliness to the pandemic.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the informative value of the meta-regression was still hampered by the limited number of predictors that could be tested on the basis of the available studies (which also necessitated a stepwise procedure).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A previous rapid review and meta-analysis (Prati & Mancini, 2021) reported small increases in mental distress (overall g = 0.17) based on longitudinal studies”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Their synthesis showed no statistically significant change in loneliness (g = 0.12, p = .34)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This constitutes a small (Cohen, 1992; Ferguson, 2009) effect, which was also heterogeneous”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Ferguson, 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the examination of the studentized residuals, robustness analyses revealed that there was no indication of outliers and according to the Cook’s distances, none of the studies were overly influential”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The numerical values of effect size indices often provide limited understanding of the real-world significance of those effects, as even statistically small effects can be of high importance (e.g., Meyer et al., 2001).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al., 2001
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Restriction measures were coded based on official mandates, however, this might have been imprecise if measures differed between regions and/or if the assessment spanned a period in which these rules changed.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, as the pandemic progressed differently around the world, we used regional cut-offs to distinguish whether study assessments had taken place before or during the pandemic, but individuals might also have been affected by restrictions outside their place of residence (e.g., travel bans).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, an alternative explanation for increases in loneliness in the population was recently provided by Buecker et al. (2021) who reported linear increases in emerging adults over the last decades.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buecker et al., 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research has shown positive effects of interventions enhancing social support (such as buddy-care programs) (Masi et al., 2011).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Masi et al., 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Prati and Mancini (2021) explored, using meta-regression, predictors of increases in mental health symptoms during the pandemic. They found no effects of mean age, gender, or study design, either.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The pandemic and mitigation measures led to fewer social contacts (greater social isolation).
“Since its outbreak, many countries around the world have enacted shelter-in-place and physical distancing orders, travel bans, and switched to remote work and education resulting in fewer social contacts (i.e., greater social isolation), which may in turn have increased loneliness”
The paper relies on this without support.
Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
“For interval- or pseudo-interval-scaled outcomes (continuous loneliness scores), weighted standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g) were used as effect size estimators”
The paper relies on this without support.
Loneliness is a risk factor for premature mortality and for mental and physical health problems.
“However, as loneliness constitutes a risk for premature mortality and mental and physical health, it should be closely monitored, ideally in combination with potential risk and protective factors and health outcomes to derive appropriate interventions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Previous literature points out that social distancing and changes to the quantity and frequency of social interactions due to the pandemic sometimes led to a significant disruption of social networks (Lampraki et al., 2022) and loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
From Social connections combat loneliness and promote wellbeing among college students coming out of the COVID-19 pandemic (2025) · cites this paper as Ernst et al., 2022
In the citing paper
“These interventions address structural drivers of loneliness identified in public health research (Ernst et al. 2022;WHO 2023).”
From Not a Silver Bullet for Loneliness: How Attachment and Age Shape Intimacy with AI Companions (2026) · cites this paper as Ernst et al. 2022
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value: (Z = 0.205, p = .238
MinorThe paper reports p = .238 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .838 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .838
“(Z = 0.205, p = .238”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upz = 0.205reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .838
“(Z = 0.205, p = .238”
- Consistentz = 4.02reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z=4.02, p < .001”
- Consistentz = 2.25reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .024
“Z=2.25, p = .02”
- Consistentz = 0.236reported p = .813 · recomputed p = .813
“(Z = 0.236, p = .813”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Risk-of-bias effect is interpreted in opposite directions
MinorThe results say lower risk of bias was associated with smaller effects, while the discussion says higher risk of bias was associated with smaller effects. The reported negative coefficient, with moderate risk coded 0 and serious risk coded 1, supports the discussion's direction.
“overall RoB rating (B = −0.35 [−0.64, −0.07]) was the only significant predictor, indicating that an overall lower RoB was associated with smaller effect sizes.”
“studies’ higher RoB was negatively associated with the observed effect sizes.”
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Items 201–300 of 581
Touloupis, T., Sofologi, M., & Tachmatzidis, D. (2023) · Social Network Analysis and Mining · doi:10.1007/s13278-023-01073-0 · Cited by 9
“…high sense of loneliness and a moderate sense of resilience, reflecting young adults’ negative emotions since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (Ernst et al. 2022; Groarke et al. 2020; Hwang et al. 2020; Rosenberg 2020; Touloupis 2021; Touloupis and Athanasiades 2022; Vinkers et al. 2020;…”
How we survived: older adults’ adjustment to the lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic
Jarego, M., Tasker, F., Costa, P. A., Ribeiro, J. L. P., & Ferreira-Valente, A. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-05860-6 · Cited by 5
Skoko, A., Seewer, N., Mund, M., & Krieger, T. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0321931 · Cited by 5
“However, research suggests that while overall loneliness increased during the pandemic, the effects were small [6].”
Chen, S., Cheung, M. W. ‐., & Cheng, C. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118229 · Cited by 7
Demirer, I., Krüger, H., & Pförtner, T. (2025) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-025-02507-1 · Cited by 5
Tang, V. F. Y., Jiang, D., Kwok, J. Y. Y., Yeung, D. Y.-L., Choi, N. G., Warner, L. M., Ho, R. T. H., & Chou, K. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.57170 · Cited by 6
Guo, H., Zhu, Q., Zhong, Y., & Huang, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749281 · Cited by 6
HASIRCI, İ., ÖRÜCÜ, E., & Pınar, K. U. R. T. (2023) · Akademik Hassasiyetler · doi:10.58884/akademik-hassasiyetler.1219694 · Cited by 7
Prosociality as a means to buffer loneliness and strengthen well-being
Chee, P. X., Shimshock, C. J., & Le, B. M. (2025) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075251344817 · Cited by 8
“…has found that loneliness has steadily risen in the past forty years (Buecker et al., 2021) and has risen to an even greater extent most recently from the COVID-19 pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022) and the advent of social media and increased use of technology (Haidt, 2024; O ’ Day & Heimberg, 2021).”
InfluentialDworakowski, O., Huber, Z. M., Meier, T., Boyd, R. L., Martin, M., & Horn, A. B. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192315699 · Cited by 6
“At the same time, social relationships as we know them faced a large threat caused by restrictions on social contact [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialOn the relevance of considering temporal dynamics in loneliness research
Scholz, U. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12422 · Cited by 6
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on U.S. Women's Mental Health
Kaugars, A. S., Zemlak, J. L., & Oswald, D. L. (2023) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2023.0253 · Cited by 5
“A recent meta-analysis found that women were more likely to experience loneliness compared with men, 21 which may be related to differential impacts of COVID-19 stressors on women’s social support systems.”
Groarke, J. M., McKeown, L., McKenna-Plumley, P. E., & Graham‐Wisener, L. (2024) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2023.2298082 · Cited by 5
“Systematic reviews have concluded that technology-based interventions hold significant promise for addressing loneliness and isolation (Sarwar Shah et al., 2019; Williams et al., 2021, 2022) and mental health among university students (Farrer et al., 2013).”
Xu, X. V., Jiang, L., Bohle, S. L., Medina, F. M., & Gu, M. (2024) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12541 · Cited by 5
Ernst, M., Brähler, E., Beutel, M. E., Kruse, J., & Andreas, S. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.06.109 · Cited by 7
Self-citationComplete Loss of Natural Teeth and Loneliness: A Fixed-Effect Analysis
Matsuyama, Y. (2024) · Journal of Dental Research · doi:10.1177/00220345241263265 · Cited by 5
“The global pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has exacerbated loneliness, albeit with effects that may vary in magnitude (Ernst et al. 2022).”
Psychoneuroimmunology in the Daily Clinic is Only Possible Within a Contextual Frame
Pruimboom, L., Rocio, F. A., & Ledesma, S. N. (2024) · Integrated science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-73061-0_16 · Cited by 5
Wegner, L., & Liu, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1067038 · Cited by 5
Moulton, V., Sullivan, A., Patalay, P., Fitzsimons, E., Henderson, M., Bann, D., & Ploubidis, G. B. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722003877 · Cited by 5
van der Velden, P. G., Contino, C., de Vroege, L., Das, M., Bosmans, M. W. G., & Zijlmans, J. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.06.042 · Cited by 5
van Reekum, E. A., Woo, J., Petropoulos, J., Samaan, Z., & Mbuagbaw, L. C. E. (2023) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.13582 · Cited by 7
“We hypothesized that the COVID-19 pandemic would be associated with symptom exacerbation because of fi ndings from the preliminary literature, 11,12 possible pandemic-related isolation and loneliness, 21 and reduced mental health service access.”
BackgroundKleinau, E., Lamba, T., Jaskiewicz, W., Gorentz, K., Hungerbuehler, I., Rahimi, D., Kokota, D., Maliwichi, L., Jamu, E. S., Zumazuma, A., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.01.24.23284959 · Cited by 5
Wang, J., Zhang, W., Song, P., Wang, T., Yao, Y., Chen, Y., Lin, H., Yang, X., Chen, X., & Fu, C. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s484113 · Cited by 6
“17 During a lockdown in the UK, nearly one in two youths reported feeling lonely.”
Alanko, K., Kuhlberg, L., & Lagerström, M. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology Open · doi:10.1024/2673-8627/a000062 · Cited by 4
A Study on Pastors and Suicide and COVID-19: How to Care for Suicidal Pastors
Yang, Z., Rando, A., & Mason, K. E. (2024) · Pastoral Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11089-024-01184-1 · Cited by 5
“…found to correlate with many risk factors of suicide, including nightmares (Ishikura et al., 2021), stress (Whittaker & Kingston, 2022), loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022), fear of contagion (Sher, 2020), morally injurious behaviors (Ehman et al., 2023), and exacerbation of post-traumatic stress…”
Unpacking the temporal dynamics of physical activity and loneliness: a 1-year interval analysis
Groß, D., & Haffa, J. (2025) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaf077 · Cited by 4
Hunsmann, J. J., Weck, F., Wendt, J., & Kühne, F. (2025) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.14365 · Cited by 4
“Characterized by periods of social isolation, the COVID-19 pandemic has also seen a notable rise in loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Imwinkelried, M., Seewer, N., & Krieger, T. (2025) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2025.101586 · Cited by 5
Fukuya, Y., Suyama, S., Ogawa, S., Yamawaki, K., Morisaki, N., & Ishitsuka, K. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01556-5 · Cited by 8
“Studies conducted following the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have shown that increasing number of individuals, from adolescents to older adults, have experienced loneliness worldwide (Ernst et al., 2022).”
An Umbrella Review of Quality of Life Among the General Population During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Watts, P. N., Deac, A. A., & Netuveli, G. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14238348 · Cited by 6
Tandon, S., Patte, K. A., Goldfield, G. S., Leatherdale, S. T., & Chaput, J. (2023) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102287 · Cited by 4
“Loneliness is a recognized public health concern and has exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic due to the lockdowns and decreased social interactions (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Marston, H. R., Prabhu, V. G., & Ivan, L. (2025) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid5010007 · Cited by 4
“During the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath, there has been greater attention paid by organisations, policy makers, and scholars attempting to alleviate loneliness [6–9], improve well-being and enhance social connections [10,11].”
He, T., Tu, C. C., Wang, Z., Hao, D., & Huang, X. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0319799 · Cited by 4
Baumkötter, R., Yılmaz, S., Chalabi, J., ten Cate, V., Alam, A. S. M., Khatami, S. G., Zahn, D., Hettich-Damm, N., Prochaska, J. H., Schmidtmann, I. M., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-025-01223-y · Cited by 4
“Symptoms that are more prevalent in persons without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection may also indicate societal and psychosocial effects of the pandemic itself [9, 28, 39 ].”
Self-citationPretorius, T. B., & Padmanabhanunni, A. (2022) · OBM Neurobiology · doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2203132 · Cited by 4
Psychosocial Determinants of Loneliness in the Era of the COVID-19 Pandemic—Cross-Sectional Study
Sierakowska, M., & Doroszkiewicz, H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191911935 · Cited by 7
Psychology Meets Biology in COVID-19: What We Know and Why It Matters for Public Health
Jones, E. J., Ayling, K., Wiley, C. R., Geraghty, A. W. A., Greer, A. L., Holt‐Lunstad, J., Prather, A. A., Schreier, H. M. C., Silver, R. C., Sneed, R. S., et al. (2023) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/23727322221145308 · Cited by 4
“Meta-analyses have further shown increased prevalence and severity of loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundAgeing and Loneliness in Times of Pandemic: A Scoping Review
Ruíz-Callado, R., Jareño-Ruíz, D., Fabregat, M. E., & Penalva-Lorca, M. M. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20075337 · Cited by 4
“It should be noted that some supervised systematic reviews deal with quantitative studies having as their main objective the study of the prevalence of loneliness where the importance of conducting longitudinal studies is highlighted in order to observe the long-term impact of the pandemic [31,32].”
BackgroundCoronado, E., Shinya, T., & Venture, G. (2023) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s23125692 · Cited by 4
“In the case of older adults, who are already at higher risk of social isolation, the pandemic has only intensified feelings of loneliness [22].”
BackgroundValeri, L., Rahimi-Eichi, H., Liebenthal, E., Rauch, S. L., Schutt, R. K., Öngür, D., Dixon, L. B., Onnela, J.-P. “., & Baker, J. T. (2023) · Schizophrenia · doi:10.1038/s41537-023-00383-8 · Cited by 4
“Some studies have reported increased levels of loneliness during COVID-19 lockdowns 7 , while others have found relatively stable levels of perceived loneliness under such strict measures 8 – 10 .”
Strategically addressing the post-COVID organization: the hope of employee experience
Plaskoff, J., & Frey, E. (2024) · Strategic HR Review · doi:10.1108/shr-01-2024-0001 · Cited by 4
Hing, N., Russell, A. M. T., Rawat, V., Bryden, G. M., Browne, M., Rockloff, M., Thorne, H. B., Newall, P. W. S., Dowling, N. A., Merkouris, S., et al. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2023.00085 · Cited by 5
“…indicate that mental health issues increased across age and gender groups, including psychological distress, anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress symptoms, sleep issues and loneliness (Cénat et al., 2021; Dettmann, Adams, & Taylor, 2022; Ernst et al., 2022; Nochaiwong et al., 2021).”
BackgroundWurtz, H. M., Mason, K. A., & Willen, S. S. (2024) · Culture Medicine and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-024-09848-6 · Cited by 4
“…Mambo et al., 2021; Merrick et al., 2023; Mmeje et al., 2020; Szucs, 2023); emotional struggles associated with loneliness and social isolation (Ernst et al., 2022; Loades et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2023); and difficulties exercising essential rights (Augusti et al., 2023; Cohen & Bosk, 2020;…”
Starosta, A. J., Tyman, S. K., Garbaccio, C., Chapman, J., & Hoffman, J. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences · doi:10.3389/fresc.2024.1377218 · Cited by 4
La soledad como predictor de mortalidad en pacientes con cáncer, un estudio de cohorte
Jiménez, A. V., de la Hoz, F., & Sánchez, R. (2024) · Biomédica · doi:10.7705/biomedica.7150 · Cited by 6
“Dada la situación de pandemia, un grupo de mediciones se llevó a cabo mediante encuestas telefónicas, siguiendo un enfoque similar al utilizado en otros estudios documentados en la literatura (20,37,39).”
BackgroundEinsamkeit in Deutschland – Prävalenz, Entwicklung über die Zeit und regionale Unterschiede
Entringer, T. M., & Stacherl, B. (2024) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-024-03937-y · Cited by 5
Sischka, P. E., Albert, I., & Kornadt, A. E. (2024) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911241283609 · Cited by 4
“…fears (of death), and special social measures (e.g., lockdown) that had a strong impact on well-being and mental health in general, and on stress, and loneliness, in particular (e.g., Dube´ et al., 2021; Ernst et al., 2022; Luo et al., 2021; Sischka, Schmidt, & Steffgen, 2024; Xiong et al., 2020).”
Li, G., Meng, J., Feng, Q., Yu, L., & Qiu, J. (2024) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.12.001 · Cited by 4
Affective and Social Predictors of Food Consumption During the COVID-19 Lockdown
Stijovic, A., Forbes, P., Pronizius, E., Feneberg, A. C., Piperno, G., Nater, U. M., Lamm, C., & Silani, G. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2025.02.007 · Cited by 4
“The COVID-19 pandemic was an exceptionally stressful time (23), and levels of social isolation and loneliness increased (4,5), both of which affect unhealthy food consumption (24).”
Dewender, S., & Kübler, R. V. (2025) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2025.04.004 · Cited by 4
Lasting Declines in Couples’ Social Network Interactions in the First Years of COVID
Haggerty, B. B., Kennedy, D. P., Bradbury, T. N., & Karney, B. R. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672231169591 · Cited by 4
Gazit, T. (2023) · Information and Learning Sciences · doi:10.1108/ils-02-2023-0019 · Cited by 5
Measuring hope and joy among Black Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic
Goodwill, J. R. (2024) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2023.2298949 · Cited by 4
“…a time of devastating loss and deep sorrow for millions across the globe (Walsh, 2020), with several reports citing increased rates of loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022), anxiety and depression (Twenge & Joiner, 2020), and risk for suicidality (Goodwill, 2023; Stone et al., 2023) throughout…”
Alonso, M. S., Lima, M. C. P., Días, A., Camacho-Vega, J. C., García‐Iglesias, J. J., Ruíz-Frutos, C., Bernardes, J. M., & Gómez-Salgado, J. C. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1283310 · Cited by 4
Liebmann, M., Pitman, A., Hsueh, Y.-C., Bertotti, M., & Pearce, E. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1757555/v1 · Cited by 4
Henke, R. M. (2023) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171221140641 · Cited by 7
Not a Silver Bullet for Loneliness: How Attachment and Age Shape Intimacy with AI Companions
Ciriello, R., Gal, U., & Turel, O. (2026) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.12476 · Cited by 4
An online compassion-focused intervention for middle school students: the Inspiring Comfort program
Fox, J. K., Walls, T., Thomas, H. M., Marr, J., Breux, P., & Warner, C. M. (2024) · Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties · doi:10.1080/13632752.2024.2399886 · Cited by 3
Tong, S. T., Ma, K. P. K., Pleho, A., Keiser, B., Hsu, C., Ehde, D. M., Curran, M. C., Tsui, J. I., Raue, P. J., & Stephens, K. A. (2024) · Addiction Science & Clinical Practice · doi:10.1186/s13722-024-00498-y · Cited by 4
“Loneliness, which refers to the perceived lack of connections to others and the feeling of not belonging [2] has increased substantially during the COVID-19 pandemic to greater than half of U.S. adults [3–6].”
BackgroundMana, A., Davidson, O. B., & Margalit, M. (2025) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2025.2457259 · Cited by 3
“It is often described as a painful experience stemming from a mismatch between desired and actual social relationships (Ernst et al. 2022).”
Sociology of loneliness: An introduction
de Velde, C. V. (2025) · Acta Sociologica · doi:10.1177/00016993251330960 · Cited by 10
Irizar, P., Kapadia, D., Taylor, H. F. W., Wafula, G., Kwaku‐Odoi, C., Bécares, L., & Katikireddi, S. V. (2025) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.70023 · Cited by 3
“However, the COVID‐19 pandemic and associated restrictions may have damaged the sense of belonging in communities, contributing to increases in loneliness and isolation (Ernst et al. 2022).”
Yamashita, N., Ishii, S., KOTOKU, Y., Shuo, T., Eto, H., & Kondo, H. (2025) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-025-00403-9 · Cited by 3
“A meta-analysis found that loneliness increased during the COVID-19 pandemic [36].”
Qu, Z., Li, C., & Yang, Y. (2025) · Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research · doi:10.1177/10963480251362104 · Cited by 3
“Learning to live with loneliness has become a common reality for people, especially in the years following the COVID-19 pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022).”
InfluentialPrevalence and predictors of loneliness among university students: A cross-sectional study
Mamun, A. S. M. A., Islam, M. M., Labib, M. H., Hasan, F. J., Hossian, M. R., Islam, M. N., & Hossain, M. G. (2025) · PLOS mental health. · doi:10.1371/journal.pmen.0000375 · Cited by 4
Adamo, D., Ottaviani, G., Canfora, F., Leuci, S., Coppola, N., Pecoraro, G., Rupel, K., Preda, M. T. B., Vello, V., Albert, U., et al. (2023) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2023/6666741 · Cited by 3
“…an increased perception of loneliness during the pandemic outbreak [9, 10], which in turn was identi fi ed as a risk factor for mood disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and systemic comorbidities, resulting in premature mortality [11] but also increasing the suicidal ideation prevalence [12].”
The functions of remembering the past and imagining the future during the COVID ‐19 pandemic
Adıgüzel, Z., Ay, D., Bilgin, E., Coşkuner, S. B., Ergen, İ., & Gülgöz, S. (2024) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4181 · Cited by 5
Emerging adults' use of social media and adjustment during the pandemic
Schwartz, D., Taylor, L. M., Troop-Gordon, W., Omary, A., Ryjova, Y., Zhang, M., & Chung, J. (2024) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2024.101643 · Cited by 3
A wandering mind reflects a lonely mind: A cross-cultural study
Liu, S., Zhao, M., Li, R., Huang, C., Du, J., Schad, D. J., & Heinzel, S. (2024) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2024.100153 · Cited by 3
Mgbako, O. U., Loughran, C., Vaughn, M. P., Felder, J., Augustin, A., Gordon, P. C., Remien, R. H., & Olender, S. (2024) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-024-04395-y · Cited by 4
Should Loneliness Be a Treatment Target?
Krieger, T., & Seewer, N. (2024) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000540988 · Cited by 3
“Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic and the social restrictions put into place, more people reported feelings of loneliness [11, 12].”
Bouchillon, B. C. (2024) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2024.102212 · Cited by 6
The impact of Covid-19 on communication and interpersonal relationships
Tillewein, H., Bhuyan, L., & Hille, J. J. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-07055-5 · Cited by 3
“Also, research shows that Covid-19 has led to self-isolation, resulting in a lack of socialization (Ernst et al., 2022; Bueker & Horstmann, 2022; de Mendonca et al., 2022) but does not identify how individuals themselves perceive the quality of their social interactions during Covid-19.”
König, H., & Hajek, A. (2024) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-024-02329-9 · Cited by 6
Tareque, M. I., Rakibuzzaman, M., Alam, M. J., Manierre, M. J., Malhotra, R., Sarker, B. K., & Mamun, M. A. A. (2024) · Cogent Gerontology · doi:10.1080/28324897.2024.2438058 · Cited by 3
Washington, T. R., & Hamler, T. C. (2025) · American Journal of Kidney Diseases · doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2024.10.012 · Cited by 3
Family Availability, ‘Kinlessness’, COVID Stringency, and Loneliness in 26 Countries
Mair, C. A., Arpino, B., Antczak, R., & Quashie, N. T. (2025) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/01640275251334624 · Cited by 3
“In an attempt to synthesize these fi ndings, meta-analyses fi nd evidence of a slight rise in loneliness across the globe during the pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022), which was slightly higher three months after the initial onset of the Mair et al. pandemic (Su et al., 2023).”
Lemp, J. M., Kilian, C., Bright, S., Kerr, W. C., Llamosas‐Falcón, L., Mulia, N., Rehm, J. T., & Probst, C. (2025) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.104826 · Cited by 3
Individual and Organizational Factors in Coping With COVID-19 in Soldier Students
Talić, I., Einhorn, A., & Renner, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.924537 · Cited by 3
“In addition to organizational changes, organizational commitment as well as job satisfaction are dominantly related to employee well-being and health (e.g., Panaccio and Vandenberghe, 2009; Donaldson and Ko, 2010; Faragher et al., 2013; Rodríguez-Fernández et al., 2021).”
BackgroundImpact of COVID-19 on the capacity to self-manage health and chronic conditions
Russell, A. M., Filec, S., Serper, M., Opsasnick, L. A., Batio, S., O’Conor, R. M., Curtis, L. M., Kwasny, M., Benavente, J. Y., Wismer, G. A., et al. (2023) · PEC Innovation · doi:10.1016/j.pecinn.2023.100163 · Cited by 3
“Pandemic-related changes in lifestyle and socialization have contributed to increases in loneliness [60].”
Lost Connections: Why the Growing Crisis of Loneliness Matters for Planetary Health
Prescott, S. L. (2023) · Challenges · doi:10.3390/challe14030031 · Cited by 3
Shillington, K. J., Yates, J., Vanderloo, L. M., Burke, S. M., Ng, V., Tucker, P., & Irwin, J. D. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288720 · Cited by 4
Badcock, J. C., Christiansen, J. A., Badcock, A. C., & Lasgaard, M. (2023) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2023.100136 · Cited by 3
Adamczyk, K., & Łyś, A. E. (2023) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100403 · Cited by 4
“, 2020), including increased social isolation and loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022; Holmes et al., 2020; Killgore et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialShen, K., & Kejriwal, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0291494 · Cited by 3
Maran, P. L., Klokgieters, S. S., Giltay, E. J., van Oppen, P., Jörg, F., Eikelenboom, M., Ottenheim, N. R., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Kok, A. A. L. (2023) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2023.571 · Cited by 5
Stevens, C. J., Wechsler, S., Ejem, D., Khalidi, S., Coffee‐Dunning, J., Morency, J. L., Thorp, K. E., Codini, M. E., Newman, R. M., Echols, J., et al. (2023) · Current Oncology · doi:10.3390/curroncol30100660 · Cited by 3
“It is not surprising that the fidelity scores are slightly lower for BA/PS as coaches had the option to request monitoring of challenging BA/PS sessions (to receive feedback).”
BackgroundXu, Y., Wang, M.-F., & Zhong, B. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-47140-6 · Cited by 3
der Sloot, R. J. A. V., & Vauclair, C. (2023) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-023-09469-0 · Cited by 4
Klokgieters, S. S., Ungar, M. T., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Glas, L., Rhebergen, D., & Kok, A. A. L. (2024) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2024.2326890 · Cited by 3
“For example, the accessibility and protectiveness of social resources, previously important against depression, were, as expected (Ernst et al., 2022), affected by the pandemic through the restrictions on social contact.”
Mental Health and Well-Being of Students and Faculty
Deredzai, M., Goronga, P., & Bondai, B. M. (2024) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5483-4.ch018 · Cited by 3
Narrating Loneliness: Isolation, Disaffection, and the Contemporary Novel
Rotger, N. (2024) · Journal of Medical Humanities · doi:10.1007/s10912-024-09855-z · Cited by 5
“1 While it is uncertain whether the risk of loneliness has increased due to the pandemic (Ernst et al. 2022), ever since the virus’s outbreak in 2019 more attention has been directed toward loneliness as an important yet overlooked determinant of health.”
Mouw, T., Merli, M. G., Xu, Y., Barbenchon, C. L., & Stolte, A. (2024) · International Migration · doi:10.1111/imig.13305 · Cited by 3
Can travel relieve the loneliness of the elderly?
Ma, J., Zhang, Z., Zheng, J., & Huo, Z. (2025) · Leisure Studies · doi:10.1080/02614367.2025.2459638 · Cited by 4
“It is a negative emotion that can contribute to various illnesses and even early death in extreme cases (Ernst et al., 2022; Gössling et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2024; National Academies et al., 2020; National Academies of; Pagan, 2020; Vos et al., 2020).”
Savage, R., Sutradhar, R., Luo, J., Strauss, R., Guan, J., Rochon, P. A., Gruneir, A., Sanmartin, C., Goel, V., Rosella, L. C., et al. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-087804 · Cited by 3
Puntil, D., Dias, G. P., Kralj, C., Deplessis, C., Rylance-Watson, E., Ka, C. M. H., & Zunszain, P. A. (2022) · Student Success · doi:10.5204/ssj.2481 · Cited by 3
Rapoport, C. S., Choi, A. K., Kwakkenbos, L., Carrier, M., Henry, R. S., Mouthon, L., Roesch, S. C., Thombs, B. D., Malcarne, V. L., the SPIN COVID‐19 Patient Advisory Team, et al. (2023) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.25115 · Cited by 3
“A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that loneliness has increased since the start of the pandemic (4).”
BackgroundInfluentialPaws, Trends, and Family Bonds: The Dog Keeping Cultural Runaway TheoryPreprint
Enikö Kubinyi, B. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/z8cxf · Cited by 3
AKKAYA, M., & Duy, B. (2024) · Cukurova University Faculty of Education Journal · doi:10.14812/cuefd.1357651 · Cited by 5
Chen, R., Liu, G., Li, S., & Kong, F. (2024) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-05391-6 · Cited by 2
“A recent meta-analysis of 24 longitudinal studies found a small but significant increase in loneliness since before the out-break of COVID-19 [9].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Ernst, M., Niederer, D., Werner, A. M., Czaja, S. J., Mikton, C., Ong, A. D., Rosen, T., Brähler, E., & Beutel, M. E.
- Affiliations
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- Weill Cornell Medicine (US)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Cornell University (US)
- NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ernst, Mareike
- ORCID
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2022-07
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 660-677
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- PMC
- PMC9768682
- OpenAlex
- W4229451984
- Cited by
- 584
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 83 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 172 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 41
- FWCI
- 114.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Mainz Research Center for Mental Health
- National Institute on Aging (K76 AG054866)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- loneliness, COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing, prevalence of loneliness, pre-pandemic comparison, mental health, social isolation, risk factors for loneliness
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Humans, Loneliness, Prospective Studies, Pandemics
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