The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 73 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 39 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review with meta-analysis.
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and measures aimed at its mitigation, such as physical distancing, have been discussed as risk factors for loneliness, which increases the risk of premature mortality and mental and physical health conditions. To ascertain whether loneliness has increased since the start of the pandemic, this study aimed to narratively and statistically synthesize relevant high-quality primary studies. This systematic review with meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (ID CRD42021246771). Searched databases were PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library/Central Register of Controlled Trials/EMBASE/CINAHL, Web of Science, the World Health Organization (WHO) COVID-19 database, supplemented by Google Scholar and citation searching (cutoff date of the systematic search December 5, 2021). Summary data from prospective research including loneliness assessments before and during the pandemic were extracted. Of 6,850 retrieved records, 34 studies (23 longitudinal, 9 pseudolongitudinal, 2 reporting both designs) on 215,026 participants were included. Risk of bias (RoB) was estimated using the risk of bias in non-randomised studies-of interventions (ROBINS-I) tool. Standardized mean differences (SMD, Hedges' g) for continuous loneliness values and logOR for loneliness prevalence rates were calculated as pooled effect size estimators in random-effects meta-analyses. Pooling studies with longitudinal designs only (overall N = 45,734), loneliness scores (19 studies, SMD = 0.27 [95% confidence interval = 0.14-0.40], Z = 4.02, p < .001, I 2 = 98%) and prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR = 0.33 [0.04-0.62], Z = 2.25, p = .02, I 2 = 96%) increased relative to prepandemic times with small effect sizes. Results were robust with respect to studies' overall RoB, pseudolongitudinal designs, timing of prepandemic assessments, and clinical populations. The heterogeneity of effects indicates a need to further investigate risk and protective factors as the pandemic progresses to inform targeted interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
25 Not checked yet · 20 Own result · 17 Own method · 6 Own interpretation · 3 No basis given
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Women were more likely to report increases in loneliness than men (Entringer & Gosling, 2021; Entringer et al., 2020; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021; Philpot et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Entringer & Gosling, 2021
- Not checked yetcites Entringer et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Niedzwiedz et al., 2021
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Those who lived alone (Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021; Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021; McGrath et al., 2021; Okely et al., 2020; Stolz et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2020) and/or were single during the pandemic (Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021; Stone, 2020) were particularly at risk for higher levels of loneliness compared to pre-pandemic assessments”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021
- Not checked yetcites Heidinger & Richter, 2020
- Not checked yetcites Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the overall pooled effect in this study was small and the effect sizes reported by the individual studies were heterogeneous.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the fact that the meta-regression accounted for less than a third of observed variance suggests that other factors may influence the different trajectories of loneliness in the pandemic context.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main findings of the longitudinal studies were robust against results from 14 studies with serious RoB (SMD = 0.41 [95% CI: 0.11–0.71])”
- Also stated in: § Sensitivity analyses · plain
“two studies with clinical populations (SMD = 0.26 [95% CI: 0.12–0.40]), six studies with pseudo-longitudinal designs (SMD = 0.30 [95% CI: 0.17–0.42]), and two studies whose pre-pandemic assessment period overlapped with the pre-specified date cut-offs (SMD = 0.27 [95% CI: 0.14–0.39])”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Sensitivity analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Sensitivity analyses · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This mirrors findings of the meta-regression, in which studies’ higher RoB was negatively associated with the observed effect sizes.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The during-pandemic assessments yielded higher continuous loneliness scores than the pre-pandemic assessments (SMD = 0.27 [95% CI: 0.14–0.40])”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“loneliness scores (19 studies, SMD=0.27 [95% confidence interval=0.14–0.40], Z=4.02, p<.001, I2=98%) and prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR=0.33 [0.04–0.62], Z=2.25, p=.02, I2=96%) increased relative to pre-pandemic times with small effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
plainn = 45,734- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and prevalence rates (logOR = 0.33 [95% CI: 0.04–0.62])”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR=0.33 [0.04–0.62], Z=2.25, p=.02, I2=96%) increased relative to pre-pandemic times with small effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
plaincorrelationaln = 45,734- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, the most rigorous analysis (the sensitivity analyses that included only longitudinal study designs and studies with moderate RoB) showed a larger pooled effect size than the main analyses.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, the duration between loneliness assessments was often a range and not a concrete number of days/months.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 18
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, 34 articles met the eligibility criteria”
- Also stated in: § Study Characteristics of Included Studies · plain
“Table 1 provides a summary of the main information extracted from the 34 eligible articles, totaling 215,026 participants”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Selection
plainn = 215,026- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Characteristics of Included Studies · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the studies reporting comparisons of loneliness pre- and during-pandemic, only one reported an overall decrease, 18 reported an overall increase, and eight reported no change”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increases in loneliness were found both in younger participant groups, such as students (Beutel et al., 2021; Elmer et al., 2020; Entringer & Gosling, 2021; Rogers et al., 2021) and in older participant groups, such as community cohorts of senior citizens (Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Krendl & Perry, 2021; Wong et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies showing decreasing loneliness had overwhelmingly relied on pre-pandemic assessments conducted shortly before the implementation of physical distancing, while those with comparison data from months or years before the pandemic had observed increased loneliness during the pandemic”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-regression identified age, clinical populations, and studies’ overall RoB as predictors of increases in loneliness, but only overall RoB had statistically significant effects.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As some original studies failed to report on previously identified vulnerable groups (e.g., individuals living alone), these could not be tested as predictors.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies had a serious overall RoB. For ten studies (seven of which were included in the main analyses), RoB was rated as moderate”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, there was a substantial number of studies with high RoB due to confounding, whereas bias due to selective reporting of results (including effect estimates) was rare”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As included studies mainly derived from the US and Europe, whereas South America, Asia/Oceania, and Africa were underrepresented, the present findings might not be generalizable to populations not conforming to the WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) stereotype (Henrich et al., 2010).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the final model (21 studies, R2 = .29), overall RoB rating (B = −0.35 [−0.64, −0.07]) was the only significant predictor, indicating that an overall lower RoB was associated with smaller effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Additional Analysis: Meta-Regression
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This is because loneliness is related to factors other than social isolation, including temporally stable characteristics of the individual (Mund et al., 2020) and their environment such as personality traits, need for contact and expectations of relationships (Qualter et al., 2015), physical and mental health, and cultural norms (Gierveld et al., 2018; Lim et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mund et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Qualter et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Gierveld et al., 2018
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bias domains included in the ROBINS-I tool (Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.2, 2021, Chapter 25, section 4) were used”
- Also stated in: § Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias · plain
“For each study and domain, the RoB was independently rated by two authors as “low”, “moderate” or “serious”. Their assessments were merged”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“which increases the risk of premature mortality and mental and physical health conditions”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“largely due to their serious impact on longevity, mental and physical health, and well-being (Fried et al., 2020; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fried et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This step was conducted independently by four members of the research group (postdoctoral/senior researchers with previous experience conducting reviews and/or meta-analyses, three psychologists (two full professors) and one medical doctor (assistant professor))”
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
“Discrepancies were resolved through discussion”
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
“Senior researchers (mathematician and medical doctor/psychologist, full professors) verified the eligibility of included studies”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Study Selection
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
In the paper
“A more recent systematic review, which included neither a meta-analysis nor a meta-regression (Buecker & Horstmann, 2021), found that longitudinal studies mainly reported increases in loneliness”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buecker & Horstmann, 2021
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies have reported stable (Peng & Roth, 2021; Sibley et al., 2020), as well as increases (Kovacs et al., 2021; Macdonald & Hülür, 2021) and decreases (Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021) in loneliness levels”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peng & Roth, 2021
- Not checked yetcites Sibley et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Kovacs et al., 2021
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, it remains unclear whether loneliness has increased overall since the pandemic started (e.g., Killgore et al., 2020; Sutin et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Killgore et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Sutin et al., 2020
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This systematic review with meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (ID CRD42021246771)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“The study protocol was registered before conducting the search”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Throughout the systematic review, the latest PRISMA guidelines were followed (Page et al., 2021)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Search Strategy and Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Page et al., 2021
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ascertain the results’ robustness, a series of sensitivity analyses were performed (1) including only studies with no ‘serious’ or ‘critical’ overall RoB rating, (2) combining longitudinal and pseudo-longitudinal study designs, (3) incorporating pre-pandemic assessments that overlapped with the date cut-offs specified above, and (4) excluding clinical populations”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Summary Measures/Methods of Synthesis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis of changes in mental health, focusing on longitudinal studies and natural experiments with pre-pandemic comparisons, found no evidence of increase in loneliness (based on three studies) (Prati & Mancini, 2021)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For use in sensitivity analyses and meta-regression, an overall RoB rating was constructed (≥1 “serious” rating in any domain resulted in a “serious” overall RoB; overall “low” RoB was only present when all domains were rated “low” risk; otherwise, overall risk was considered “moderate”)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“previous research has shown that particularly sustained or chronic loneliness jeopardizes mental and physical health (Cacioppo et al., 2015; National Academies of Science, 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cacioppo et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites National Academies of Science, 2020
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The confidence in the finding that there has been an increase in loneliness – albeit small – during the pandemic is strengthened by the results of the sensitivity analyses, the inclusion of only high-quality and longitudinal research in the meta-analyses, the relatively large number of studies with a pooled sample of 45,734 participants, and the lack of any indication of publication bias”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 45,734- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lack of control samples unaffected by the pandemic weakens possible causal inference, making it more difficult to attribute the increase in loneliness to the pandemic.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the informative value of the meta-regression was still hampered by the limited number of predictors that could be tested on the basis of the available studies (which also necessitated a stepwise procedure).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A previous rapid review and meta-analysis (Prati & Mancini, 2021) reported small increases in mental distress (overall g = 0.17) based on longitudinal studies”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Their synthesis showed no statistically significant change in loneliness (g = 0.12, p = .34)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This constitutes a small (Cohen, 1992; Ferguson, 2009) effect, which was also heterogeneous”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Ferguson, 2009
plaindirectn = 45,734- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the examination of the studentized residuals, robustness analyses revealed that there was no indication of outliers and according to the Cook’s distances, none of the studies were overly influential”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The numerical values of effect size indices often provide limited understanding of the real-world significance of those effects, as even statistically small effects can be of high importance (e.g., Meyer et al., 2001).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al., 2001
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Restriction measures were coded based on official mandates, however, this might have been imprecise if measures differed between regions and/or if the assessment spanned a period in which these rules changed.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, as the pandemic progressed differently around the world, we used regional cut-offs to distinguish whether study assessments had taken place before or during the pandemic, but individuals might also have been affected by restrictions outside their place of residence (e.g., travel bans).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, an alternative explanation for increases in loneliness in the population was recently provided by Buecker et al. (2021) who reported linear increases in emerging adults over the last decades.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buecker et al., 2021
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research has shown positive effects of interventions enhancing social support (such as buddy-care programs) (Masi et al., 2011).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Masi et al., 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Prati and Mancini (2021) explored, using meta-regression, predictors of increases in mental health symptoms during the pandemic. They found no effects of mean age, gender, or study design, either.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The pandemic and mitigation measures led to fewer social contacts (greater social isolation).
“Since its outbreak, many countries around the world have enacted shelter-in-place and physical distancing orders, travel bans, and switched to remote work and education resulting in fewer social contacts (i.e., greater social isolation), which may in turn have increased loneliness”
The paper relies on this without support.
Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
“For interval- or pseudo-interval-scaled outcomes (continuous loneliness scores), weighted standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g) were used as effect size estimators”
The paper relies on this without support.
Loneliness is a risk factor for premature mortality and for mental and physical health problems.
“However, as loneliness constitutes a risk for premature mortality and mental and physical health, it should be closely monitored, ideally in combination with potential risk and protective factors and health outcomes to derive appropriate interventions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Previous literature points out that social distancing and changes to the quantity and frequency of social interactions due to the pandemic sometimes led to a significant disruption of social networks (Lampraki et al., 2022) and loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
From Social connections combat loneliness and promote wellbeing among college students coming out of the COVID-19 pandemic (2025) · cites this paper as Ernst et al., 2022
In the citing paper
“These interventions address structural drivers of loneliness identified in public health research (Ernst et al. 2022;WHO 2023).”
From Not a Silver Bullet for Loneliness: How Attachment and Age Shape Intimacy with AI Companions (2026) · cites this paper as Ernst et al. 2022
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“(Z = 0.205, p = .238”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
Reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .838
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upz = 0.205reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .838
“(Z = 0.205, p = .238”
- Consistentz = 4.02reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z=4.02, p < .001”
- Consistentz = 2.25reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .024
“Z=2.25, p = .02”
- Consistentz = 0.236reported p = .813 · recomputed p = .813
“(Z = 0.236, p = .813”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Additional Analysis: Meta-Regression
“overall RoB rating (B = −0.35 [−0.64, −0.07]) was the only significant predictor, indicating that an overall lower RoB was associated with smaller effect sizes.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
“studies’ higher RoB was negatively associated with the observed effect sizes.”
Citations
Cites
The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., et al. (2021) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.n71 · Cited by 108,283
Home visits: a strategy to improve newborn survival - Authors' reply
(2008) · Americanae (AECID Library) · doi:10.1016/s0140 · Cited by 22,524
The weirdest people in the world?
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0999152x · Cited by 12,641
Cohen, J. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.112.1.155 · Cited by 8,771
Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., Chandler, J., Welch, V. A., Higgins, J. P., & Thomas, J. (2019) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.ed000142 · Cited by 7,218
Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614568352 · Cited by 6,043
The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: concurrent and discriminant validity evidence
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472 · Cited by 5,173
A Short Scale for Measuring Loneliness in Large Surveys: Results From Two Population-Based Studies
Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027504268574 · Cited by 4,781
An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers.
Ferguson, C. J. (2009) · Professional Psychology: Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0015808 · Cited by 3,467
Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women
Steptoe, A., Shankar, A., Demakakos, P., & Wardle, J. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1219686110 · Cited by 2,503
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.2. (2021). (Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, & Welch VA, Eds.). Cochrane. www.training.cochrane.org/handbook PMC10284251 31643080
- Gierveld JDJ, & Tilburg TV (2006). A 6-item scale for overall, emotional, and social loneliness: Confirmatory tests on survey data. Research on Aging, 28(5), 582– 598.
- National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine,. (2020). Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults: Opportunities for the Health Care System. National Academies Press. 32510896
- Perlman D, & Peplau LA (1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. In Gilmour R & Duck S (Eds.), Personal Relationships (Vol. 3, pp. 31– 56). Academic Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 581
Usages et appropriations du jeu vidéo Animal Crossing: New Horizonsen contexte de pandémie
Leudens, H. (2023) · Kinephanos Revue d études des médias et de culture populaire · doi:10.7202/1113431ar · Cited by 2
Thilakasiri, I., Fonseka, T., Mapa, I., Godaliyadda, R. I., Herath, V. R., Usoof-Thowfeek, R., Rathnayake, A., Ekanayake, P., & Ekanayake, J. B. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1491805 · Cited by 2
Tomaino, S. C. M., Venier, E., & Cipolletta, S. (2025) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.70059 · Cited by 2
Jarcho, M. R., Gowda, A., Walden, A., Chavez, Y., Amidei, A., Normann, M. C., Akinbo, O. I., Kovalev, D., Linley, J., Endsley, L., et al. (2024) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114902 · Cited by 3
Amendola, S. (2025) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640251337968 · Cited by 2
“For ample sectors of the population, spending increasing time alone at home became ordinary (Kannan & Veazie, 2023; Lam & Garcia, 2024) and feelings of loneliness generally increased (Amendola, Volken et al., 2023; Ernst et al., 2022; Wilson-Genderson et al., 2022).”
Zara, S., Kruse, J., Brähler, E., Ernst, M., Fegert, J. M., Lampe, A., Nolte, T., Rassenhofer, M., Riedl, D., & Kampling, H. (2025) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2025.112390 · Cited by 2
Self-citationTime and Frequency of Social Media Use and Loneliness Among U.S. Adults
Gorman, J. R., Kim, H., Sakuma, K.-L. K., Koneru, G., Aslam, M., Abreu, C. A., & Primack, B. A. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22101510 · Cited by 7
“While social engagement and connection had been declining prior to COVID-19 [16], this trend was amplified by the pandemic [17,18].”
Purpose in life mitigates digital disconnection in older adults
Wang, Y., & Ong, A. D. (2025) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaf227 · Cited by 2
“Epidemiological data indicate that approximately half of U.S. adults experience regular loneliness, with heightened prevalence among those lacking strong social support (Ernst et al., 2022; Office of the Surgeon General, 2023).”
Self-citationGarcía-Iglesias, J., Heaphy, B., Yodovich, N., & Xiong, Q. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118799 · Cited by 2
Subjective Disconnection: An Attachment Perspective
Helm, P. J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-02959-1_1 · Cited by 2
Saladino, V., Verrastro, V., Cuzzocrea, F., & Calaresi, D. (2025) · Developmental Child Welfare · doi:10.1177/25161032251388301 · Cited by 5
“Loneliness, de fi ned as a discrepancy between desired and actual social relationships (Ernst et al., 2022), is a universal experience affected by factors like social isolation, relationship breakdown, and life transitions (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010).”
Ernst, M., Petersen, J., Krakau, L., Reinwarth, A. C., Hettich-Damm, N., Hartmann, A., Wild, P. S., Münzel, T. F., Urschitz, M. S., Lackner, K. J., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120907 · Cited by 2
Self-citationLong COVID symptoms and loneliness: findings from the World Trade Center Health Registry
Sisti, J. S., Packard, S. E., & Metzler, J. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-26006-8 · Cited by 2
“18 However, while population-level increases in loneliness during the COVID-19 appeared relatively small [29], results of our analysis suggest that individuals experiencing long COVID symptoms may experience persistent effects of the pandemic on social well-being.”
The impact of appearance anxiety on loneliness among college students: an integrative model
Chang, J., Guo, D., & Dai, S. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04269-z · Cited by 3
“Empirical evidence indicates that loneliness is highly prevalent among college students in both China and Western countries [3–5].”
Student belonging and well-being in higher education: Insights from five European universities
Pleschová, G., Hajdúk, M., Simon, E., Januška, J., Zemandl, E. J., Nyikes, N. N., Kurowski, M., Košatková, M., & Vidláková, J. (2026) · Policy Futures in Education · doi:10.1177/14782103261436155 · Cited by 2
“This trend was observed not only in the U.S. but also across Europe and Asia (Hajduk et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2023), with increases in perceived loneliness reported as well (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Exploring artmaking in a virtual community during COVID-19
Ridley, S., Einstein, T. R., & McNutt, J. V. (2023) · Journal of Applied Arts and Health · doi:10.1386/jaah_00137_1 · Cited by 2
Philbrook, L. E., Chen, G. J.-X., Decker, R. A., & Khaner, L. B. (2023) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968231174081 · Cited by 3
“Rates of loneliness are particularly prevalent and increasing in this population (Buecker et al., 2021), exacerbated even further by the isolation of the COVID-19 pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundProtective roles of empathy and compassion against loneliness early in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic
Karnaze, M. M., & Bloss, C. S. (2023) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2023.100130 · Cited by 2
Attachment and Coping in the Second Pandemic Year: The Impact on Loneliness and Emotional Distress
Hopulele-Petri, A., Stănculete, M. F., & Manea, M. (2023) · COVID · doi:10.3390/covid3090092 · Cited by 2
Nashwan, A. J., Alahmad, R., Afifeh, G. A., & Afifeh, N. A. (2023) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.141325.1 · Cited by 7
“29 The review identified 34 high-quality primary studies with 215,026 participants, including longitudinal and pseudo longitudinal designs.”
Olawa, B. D., Idemudia, E. S., Omolayo, B. O., & Azikiwe, J. C. (2023) · Health Psychology Open · doi:10.1177/20551029231206764 · Cited by 2
“However, not every socially isolated individual is lonely, and not every lonely individual is socially isolated (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundDoes the Easing of COVID-19 Restrictive Measures Improve Loneliness Conditions? Evidence from Japan
Nabeshima, H., Kuramoto, Y., Khan, M. S. R., & Kadoya, Y. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su152416891 · Cited by 2
Sullivan, C., Vick, J. B., Decosimo, K. P., Grubber, J. M., Coffman, C. J., Bruening, R., Sperber, N. R., Tucker, M., Dadolf, J., Boucher, N. A., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging · doi:10.3389/fragi.2024.1376103 · Cited by 2
Wolff, B., Glasson, E. J., & Pestell, C. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12981 · Cited by 2
Poeller, S., Dechant, M., & Mandryk, R. L. (2024) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/3649921.3650006 · Cited by 2
Well-being amongst undergraduate students during the dual pandemic: an exploratory study
Hamamouche, K. A., Angstmann, J. L., Sorge, B., Day, B., Trueblood, E., Rosen, L., Williamson, F. A., & Fore, G. (2024) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2024.2393107 · Cited by 2
“12”
Jones, M., Metse, A. P., Watkins, A., Hermens, D. F., & Driver, C. (2024) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241288381 · Cited by 2
“3,6 Recognising the value of additional services aimed at preventing or alleviating emerging mental health problems during medical pan-demics, 7 there is a need for easily accessible additional services to accommodate the increased burden that arises from population-level impacts such as pandemics.”
BackgroundLoneliness and low fruit and vegetable consumption among adults in Japan
Stickley, A., Shirama, A., & Sumiyoshi, T. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1365628 · Cited by 2
Bianchini, G., Kinnear, A., & Bodell, L. P. (2024) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-024-01532-8 · Cited by 2
Clinical and lifestyle predictors of loneliness: A two-year longitudinal study
Salgado, T. A., Montezano, B. B., Roza, T. H., Bouvier, V. D. A., Zimerman, A., Noronha, L. T., Marcon, G., Hoffmann, M. S., Brunoni, A. R., & Passos, I. C. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.11.025 · Cited by 5
Ayalon, L., & Segel‐Karpas, D. (2024) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610224000851 · Cited by 2
“Several studies conducted during the pandemic and right afterward have shown a substantial impact on the population that has experienced an intense sense of loneliness during the pandemic (Ernst et al ., 2022; Wu, 2020).”
Gabarrell‐Pascuet, A., Coll‐Planas, L., Alias, S. B., Pascual, R. M., Haro, J. M., & Domènech‐Abella, J. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0311883 · Cited by 6
Depression in the COVID-19 endemic era: Analysis of online self-disclosures by young South Koreans
Kim, S., Aum, T., & Lee, D. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0314881 · Cited by 2
Blind spots in health perception: the underestimated role of social connection for health outcomes
Proctor, A. S., & Holt‐Lunstad, J. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-21554-5 · Cited by 3
Context matters: Geographic and age differences explain high heterogeneity in social isolation
Ahmad, F., Sridhar, A., Hoover, S., & Henning‐Smith, C. (2025) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2025.100257 · Cited by 2
Leich, M., Guse, J., & Bergelt, C. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526960 · Cited by 3
The role of health impact assessment in mental health emergency preparedness, a scoping review
Hwang, R., Righter, R. D., Lautermilch, L. R., Hunter, M. K., & Unice, K. M. (2025) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2025.107957 · Cited by 2
Xie, W. F., Dong, Z., Yang, L., Ye, Z., Xu, J., & Li, J. (2025) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2025.103391 · Cited by 2
Cho, H., Lee, J. Y., Heo, J., Kang, D., & Cho, J. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-088590 · Cited by 3
Karnaze, M. M., Kious, B. M., Feuerman, L. Z., Classen, S. A., Robinson, J. O., Bloss, C. S., & McGuire, A. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1016337 · Cited by 3
“A recent meta-analysis showing that there have been increases in loneliness during the pandemic (even though loneliness was a problem internationally before the pandemic) suggests that it may be incumbent upon institutions to contribute to interventions to mitigate loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundLenzo, V., & Quattropani, M. C. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136301 · Cited by 2
“For instance, restrictive measures and social distancing following the spread of contagion have undoubtedly increased loneliness, which increases negative consequences for mental and physical health (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Backgroundvon Werthern, N. M., Ahrens, K. F., Neumann, R. J., Kollmann, B., Kranz, T. M., Lieb, K., Tüscher, O., Reif, A., Fiebach, C. J., & Plichta, M. M. (2023) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622975.2023.2226201 · Cited by 2
Predicting Loneliness through Digital Footprints on Google and YouTube
Ahmed, E., Xue, L., Sankalp, A., Kong, H., Matos, A., Silenzio, V., & Singh, V. K. (2023) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics12234821 · Cited by 5
Loneliness Trajectories in Adults across the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Latent Growth Modelling StudyPreprint
Power, J. M., Daly, M., & Hyland, P. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2624475/v1 · Cited by 2
Goossens, L. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-96023-6.00062-2 · Cited by 3
Loneliness and community mental health
Bradley, M. (2022) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-07-2022-0045 · Cited by 1
LGBTQ+ people’s religious and spiritual experiences in the COVID-19 pandemic
Levy, D. L., Gandy, M. E., & Levy, B. L. (2022) · Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work Social Thought · doi:10.1080/15426432.2022.2111394 · Cited by 1
Interventionen gegen Einsamkeit und ihre Wirksamkeit
Seewer, N., & Krieger, T. (2022) · Kulturen der Gesellschaft · doi:10.1515/9783839463505-013 · Cited by 1
Extremism, knowledge, and overconfidence in the covid-19 restriction times
HATORI, T., & Bhandary, N. P. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1295807 · Cited by 1
“…et al. (2020) also report like social distancing and other restrictions may negatively affect the economy and may also increase the risk of social isolation and loneliness, which may further lead to increased risk of premature mortality and suicide (Tanaka and Okamoto, 2021; Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundEstimating risk of loneliness in adulthood using survey-based prediction models: A cohort study
Elovainio, M. J., Airaksinen, J., Nyberg, S. T., Pentti, J., Pulkki-Råbäck, L., Cachón-Alonso, L., Suvisaari, J., Jääskeläinen, T., Koskinen, S. V. P., Mika Kivimaki, B., et al. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.06.030 · Cited by 4
Negrete‐Najar, J. P., Sverdlin, A. R., Rodríguez, A. A., & Navarrete‐Reyes, A. P. (2024) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/10497323241245340 · Cited by 2
“This last bene fi t is crucial for coping during lockdown (Ernst et al., 2022; Lampraki et al., 2022).”
Church Conflict, Loneliness, and the Bid to Belong
Lee, C. (2024) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/00916471241268840 · Cited by 1
“(pp. 2–3, emphasis in original) Other researchers (e.g., Buecker et al., 2021; Ernst et al., 2022) also take exception to the language on empirical grounds, noting that increases in the prevalence of loneliness over time are slight.”
Hamer, K., Boczkowska, M., Kaniasty, K. Z., Górska, P., Baran, M., & Urbańska, B. (2024) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.12589 · Cited by 1
“Lockdowns and calls for social distancing within communities made people feel more lonely, isolated, and detached from others (e.g., Domènech-Abella et al., 2021; Ernst et al., 2022; van Mulukom et al., 2021) and uncertain about social reintegration in the future (see, e.g., Williams et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMood, Quality of Life, and Immune Fitness During the COVID-19 Pandemic of Young Adults in Germany
Hendriksen, P., Kiani, P., Koyun, A. H., Garssen, J., Stock, A., & Verster, J. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13216487 · Cited by 1
“The data reveal a significant increase in loneliness during the lockdown periods, aligning with international reports [39–41].”
ResultNigatu, Y. T., Wickens, C. M., & Hamilton, H. A. (2024) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2024.2426983 · Cited by 1
“A review of studies has shown that lone-liness levels have experienced a small but robust increase since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, affecting a substantial portion of the global population (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Bjørndal, L. D., Nes, R. B., Ayorech, Z., Vassend, O. M., & Røysamb, E. (2024) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-024-03832-8 · Cited by 1
Masturin (2024) · Religious Education · doi:10.1080/00344087.2024.2426318 · Cited by 1
“As the transition to remote learning continues, deeper exploration into its psychological, social, and pedagogical effects is necessary (Cutri, Mena, and Whiting 2020; Doz et al. 2022; Ernst et al. 2022).”
Schenk, M., Baldofski, S., Hall, F., Urbansky, T., Strauß, M., Kohls, E., & Rummel‐Kluge, C. (2024) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-024-02808-w · Cited by 3
Leve, L. D., DeGarmo, D. S., Searcy, J., Budd, E. L., García, J. I. R., Mauricio, A. M., & Cresko, W. A. (2025) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-025-01769-z · Cited by 1
“Public health was diminishing drastically, as measured by both physical health and mental health indicators (Ernst et al., 2022; Kauhanen et al., 2023; Moreno et al., 2020; Shanbehzadeh et al., 2021), and society needed effective prevention strategies and solutions that could be rapidly deployed in…”
Cotter, K. N., & Pawelski, J. O. (2025) · Arts & Health · doi:10.1080/17533015.2025.2460990 · Cited by 1
Biesen, J., Fink, B. C., Keeling, L. A., & Lindsey, L. (2025) · Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2025.2462943 · Cited by 1
“COVID-19-related surges of isolation were linked to numerous undesirable outcomes during this time in the general population, including increases in depressive and anxious symptoms (Palgi et al., 2020), as well as alcohol and other drug use (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Demis, L. Y., Desmond, C., Gruver, R. S., Timol, F., Davidson, L. L., & Kane, J. C. (2025) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-024-02811-1 · Cited by 1
Gerson, J., Gracia, L., & Riva, E. (2025) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.70067 · Cited by 2
Best, R., Strough, J., & de Bruin, W. B. (2025) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.1177/00914150251359473 · Cited by 2
“Studies investigating loneliness during the pandemic often reported greater loneliness in younger adults (Cigna, 2022; Ernst et al., 2022), with a reduction in social interactions highlighted as a key contributor (Wickens et al., 2021).”
InfluentialThe Consequences of Loneliness for Young People
Roffey, S. (2025) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1011902 · Cited by 1
Wu, C., Chou, W., Yang, H.-H., Lin, T., Long, Y.-H., Yang, C.-C., Sun, W., & Lin, C. (2025) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s550628 · Cited by 1
“8 Epidemiological studies employing large-scale survey methodologies have suggested a predictive relationship wherein the presence and severity of pain can predict the subsequent development of loneliness, 9,10 and conversely, that loneliness can predict the onset and exacerbation of both acute and…”
Eager, S., Baldwin, H., McDaid, D., McCrone, P., Barnett, P., Stefanidou, T., Shah, P., Jeffreys, S., Rojas‐García, A., Jarvis, R. R., et al. (2025) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2025.10862 · Cited by 3
“26 The negative health outcomes associated with loneliness and the increase in loneliness and isolation reported during the COVID-19 pandemic 27 have accelerated a rapid increase in research and public interest in loneliness and its societal impact.”
Perceived neighborhood cohesion and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S.
Robinette, J. W., Jenkins, B. N., Duran, N.-M., & Frederick, D. A. (2025) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053251369385 · Cited by 1
“Second, a large review of research conducted during the pandemic found that stay-at-home behaviors were associated with greater loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Pavlovski, D., Stanojkovska, D., Dikken, J., van Hoof, J., & Marston, H. R. (2025) · Cogent Gerontology · doi:10.1080/28324897.2025.2574327 · Cited by 1
Social isolation impacts risk perception but not peer influence in mid-adolescence
Thomas, K., Towner, E., Tomova, L., Chierchia, G., & Blakemore, S. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105886 · Cited by 3
“Both forms of social disconnection have been increasing in prevalence over time (Buecker et al., 2021; Kannan & Veazie, 2023); a trend that worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2020).”
Understanding the place of urban nature in the therapeutic landscapes literature: A scoping review
Lyeo, J. S., Williams, A., & Marsh, P. (2025) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2025.129176 · Cited by 1
Loneliness Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic
Ernst, M. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-02959-1_8 · Cited by 1
Self-citationLu, Y., Wang, Y., Xie, H., Liu, Y., & Ma, W. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-06203-x · Cited by 1
“Moreover, evidence indicates that perceived stress and loneliness increased across general populations compared with pre-pandemic levels (Charles et al., 2021; Ernst et al., 2022), suggesting that college students may have been similarly affected.”
Boyraz, G. (2026) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.70138 · Cited by 1
Sánchez, B., Anderson, A. J., Lee, S. J., Bourke, K. T., Monjaras‐Gaytan, L. Y., Valdez, J. M., Herrera, C., & DuBois, D. L. (2026) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316261415946 · Cited by 1
Herdian, Nur’aeni, Nordin, N. A., & Nuryana, Z. (2026) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-026-01317-8 · Cited by 1
“Recent evidence indicates that loneliness has intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic and contributes to a wide range of negative mental and physical health outcomes (Ernst et al. 2022 ).”
Tatematsu, D., Nakamura, N., Abe, M., Ishikawa, T., Ezaki, T., Cai, L., Kawakami, E., Aihara, K., Nishida, A., Okada, N., et al. (2026) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004884 · Cited by 1
Hoang, T. H., Ngo, Q. D., Phạm, K. M. L., Le, T. Q. A., Hoang, K. L., Truong, Q. D., & Bach, L. A. (2026) · Health Education · doi:10.1108/he-10-2024-0122 · Cited by 2
Yang, Q., Jiang, Z., Xu, H., Niu, G., Yang, H., & Li, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1688824 · Cited by 2
Racial microaggression and anxiety in young adults: The moderating role of social support networks
Vitoroulis, I., Buchan-Pham, C., Feng, R. Y., Abu-Obseh, F., Andrews, N. C. Z., Guimond, F., Ryder, A. G., & Santo, J. B. (2026) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254261416399 · Cited by 1
Predictors of Loneliness, Mental Wellbeing, and Stress During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Switzerland
Zaiser, C., Laskowski, N. M., Müller, R., & Paslakis, G. (2026) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2026.1609518 · Cited by 1
“A meta-analysis found a small but significant rise compared with pre-pandemic levels [7].”
Schütz, R., Dadaczynski, K., Rathmann, K., Bilz, L., HBSC Study Group Germany, Anghel, J., Bargholz, K., Böhm, M., Braun, N., Dernbach, M., et al. (2026) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-026-00605-7 · Cited by 1
Meehan, D. E., Grunseit, A. C., HaGani, N., & Merom, D. (2026) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxag007 · Cited by 1
“40,41 Including these published reports would have broadened the review beyond its core theoretical aim of understanding place-based community and societal determinants in nonpandemic contexts.”
Adolescent wellbeing after COVID-related school-closings
Goellner, L., Rademacher, J., Forstmeier, S., & Faßbender, I. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1591897 · Cited by 1
“…of life-satisfaction in different parts of the population shortly after the pandemic outbreak (Arora et al., 2020; Buecker and Horstmann, 2021; Clair et al., 2021; Ernst et al., 2022; Hossain et al., 2020; Paczkowska et al., 2022; Pai and Vella, 2021; Robinson et al., 2022; Talevi et al., 2020).”
Zhu, D. T., Mitragotri, S., & Lin, J. C. (2026) · Community mental health journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-026-01630-9 · Cited by 1
Sjöblom, J., Schulman, S., Walldén, C., Jern, P., & Antfolk, J. (2026) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075261451291 · Cited by 1
Deng, C., Chang, Y., & Geng, L. (2026) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2026.116272 · Cited by 1
A Survey to Assess Loneliness and Predictive Factors Among Students at a US Medical School
Gautam, A., McCann, J., Amkraut, R., Diaz, M., & Lamb, E. G. (2026) · Academic Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40596-026-02366-0 · Cited by 1
“This study was administered before the COVID-19 pandemic, and studies have shown that loneliness increased during the pandemic, including among students, pointing to one possible explanation [16].”
Reischer, H. N., Fivecoat, H. C., Cunningham, C. N., Blum, L., Ho, S., & Lawrence, E. E. (2026) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2026.104761 · Cited by 1
Liu, W., Wang, B., Cosco, T. D., Cai, Z., Tang, X., Zhou, Z., & Ren, Z. (2026) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2026.2690401 · Cited by 1
Gender in Personal and Collective Event Memories From the COVID‐19 Pandemic
Duman, Ç., & Wang, Q. (2026) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70248 · Cited by 1
HaGani, N., Clare, P. J., Owen, K., Luo, M., Surkalim, D. L., Manera, K., Lim, M. H., Smith, B. J., Phongsavan, P., & Ding, D. (2026) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyag143 · Cited by 1
“Although COVID-19 may have intensified these patterns [36], our sensitivity analysis and other evidence suggest the increase would likely have occurred regardless [37].”
Jester, D. J., & Leutwyler, H. C. (2023) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610223000352 · Cited by 1
Xiao, S., & Dang, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1124627 · Cited by 1
Fedáková, D., Adamkovic, M., Loziak, A., & Kačmár, P. (2023) · Timing & Time Perception · doi:10.1163/22134468-bja10076 · Cited by 1
Psychosocial Factors of Subjective Well-Being in Women with Eating Disorders
Matkovic, H., Brajković, L., & Kopilaš, V. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13070594 · Cited by 1
“Such results were also expected because loneliness increased and resilience declined during the COVID-19 pandemic [16,25].”
BackgroundResultWhat psychology can tell us about the cultural effects of climate change
Wormley, A. S. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.102175 · Cited by 1
Franklin, M. A. (2023) · OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2304045 · Cited by 1
Salciunaite-Nikonove, L., Žemaitaitytė, M., & Šmigelskas, K. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11010032 · Cited by 1
“This trend could have been accelerated further by the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic, which imposed social restrictions and may have increased the number of people feeling lonely [55].”
BackgroundRapoport, C. S., Choi, A. K., Kwakkenbos, L., Carrier, M., Henry, R. S., Levis, B., Bartlett, S. J., Gietzen, A., Gottesman, K., Guillot, G., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-023-10248-0 · Cited by 1
“Individuals with chronic illnesses are underrepresented in the literature on loneliness, and this disparity is especially heightened for individuals with rare chronic illnesses such as SSc [3, 4].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Ernst, M., Niederer, D., Werner, A. M., Czaja, S. J., Mikton, C., Ong, A. D., Rosen, T., Brähler, E., & Beutel, M. E.
- Affiliations
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- Weill Cornell Medicine (US)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Cornell University (US)
- NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ernst, Mareike
- ORCID
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2022-07
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 660-677
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- PMC
- PMC9768682
- OpenAlex
- W4229451984
- Cited by
- 584
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 83 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 172 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 41
- FWCI
- 114.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Mainz Research Center for Mental Health
- National Institute on Aging (K76 AG054866)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- loneliness, COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing, prevalence of loneliness, pre-pandemic comparison, mental health, social isolation, risk factors for loneliness
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Humans, Loneliness, Prospective Studies, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-05 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
