The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 73 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 39 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review with meta-analysis.
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and measures aimed at its mitigation, such as physical distancing, have been discussed as risk factors for loneliness, which increases the risk of premature mortality and mental and physical health conditions. To ascertain whether loneliness has increased since the start of the pandemic, this study aimed to narratively and statistically synthesize relevant high-quality primary studies. This systematic review with meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (ID CRD42021246771). Searched databases were PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library/Central Register of Controlled Trials/EMBASE/CINAHL, Web of Science, the World Health Organization (WHO) COVID-19 database, supplemented by Google Scholar and citation searching (cutoff date of the systematic search December 5, 2021). Summary data from prospective research including loneliness assessments before and during the pandemic were extracted. Of 6,850 retrieved records, 34 studies (23 longitudinal, 9 pseudolongitudinal, 2 reporting both designs) on 215,026 participants were included. Risk of bias (RoB) was estimated using the risk of bias in non-randomised studies-of interventions (ROBINS-I) tool. Standardized mean differences (SMD, Hedges' g) for continuous loneliness values and logOR for loneliness prevalence rates were calculated as pooled effect size estimators in random-effects meta-analyses. Pooling studies with longitudinal designs only (overall N = 45,734), loneliness scores (19 studies, SMD = 0.27 [95% confidence interval = 0.14-0.40], Z = 4.02, p < .001, I 2 = 98%) and prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR = 0.33 [0.04-0.62], Z = 2.25, p = .02, I 2 = 96%) increased relative to prepandemic times with small effect sizes. Results were robust with respect to studies' overall RoB, pseudolongitudinal designs, timing of prepandemic assessments, and clinical populations. The heterogeneity of effects indicates a need to further investigate risk and protective factors as the pandemic progresses to inform targeted interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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In the paper
“Women were more likely to report increases in loneliness than men (Entringer & Gosling, 2021; Entringer et al., 2020; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021; Philpot et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Entringer & Gosling, 2021
- Not checked yetcites Entringer et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Niedzwiedz et al., 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Those who lived alone (Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021; Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021; McGrath et al., 2021; Okely et al., 2020; Stolz et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2020) and/or were single during the pandemic (Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021; Stone, 2020) were particularly at risk for higher levels of loneliness compared to pre-pandemic assessments”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021
- Not checked yetcites Heidinger & Richter, 2020
- Not checked yetcites Huxhold & Tesch-Römer, 2021
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the overall pooled effect in this study was small and the effect sizes reported by the individual studies were heterogeneous.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the fact that the meta-regression accounted for less than a third of observed variance suggests that other factors may influence the different trajectories of loneliness in the pandemic context.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main findings of the longitudinal studies were robust against results from 14 studies with serious RoB (SMD = 0.41 [95% CI: 0.11–0.71])”
- Also stated in: § Sensitivity analyses · plain
“two studies with clinical populations (SMD = 0.26 [95% CI: 0.12–0.40]), six studies with pseudo-longitudinal designs (SMD = 0.30 [95% CI: 0.17–0.42]), and two studies whose pre-pandemic assessment period overlapped with the pre-specified date cut-offs (SMD = 0.27 [95% CI: 0.14–0.39])”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Sensitivity analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Sensitivity analyses · plain
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In the paper
“This mirrors findings of the meta-regression, in which studies’ higher RoB was negatively associated with the observed effect sizes.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The during-pandemic assessments yielded higher continuous loneliness scores than the pre-pandemic assessments (SMD = 0.27 [95% CI: 0.14–0.40])”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“loneliness scores (19 studies, SMD=0.27 [95% confidence interval=0.14–0.40], Z=4.02, p<.001, I2=98%) and prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR=0.33 [0.04–0.62], Z=2.25, p=.02, I2=96%) increased relative to pre-pandemic times with small effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and prevalence rates (logOR = 0.33 [95% CI: 0.04–0.62])”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“prevalence rates (8 studies, logOR=0.33 [0.04–0.62], Z=2.25, p=.02, I2=96%) increased relative to pre-pandemic times with small effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, the most rigorous analysis (the sensitivity analyses that included only longitudinal study designs and studies with moderate RoB) showed a larger pooled effect size than the main analyses.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, the duration between loneliness assessments was often a range and not a concrete number of days/months.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 18
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, 34 articles met the eligibility criteria”
- Also stated in: § Study Characteristics of Included Studies · plain
“Table 1 provides a summary of the main information extracted from the 34 eligible articles, totaling 215,026 participants”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Selection
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Characteristics of Included Studies · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of the studies reporting comparisons of loneliness pre- and during-pandemic, only one reported an overall decrease, 18 reported an overall increase, and eight reported no change”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increases in loneliness were found both in younger participant groups, such as students (Beutel et al., 2021; Elmer et al., 2020; Entringer & Gosling, 2021; Rogers et al., 2021) and in older participant groups, such as community cohorts of senior citizens (Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Krendl & Perry, 2021; Wong et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Study Characteristics of Included Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies showing decreasing loneliness had overwhelmingly relied on pre-pandemic assessments conducted shortly before the implementation of physical distancing, while those with comparison data from months or years before the pandemic had observed increased loneliness during the pandemic”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-regression identified age, clinical populations, and studies’ overall RoB as predictors of increases in loneliness, but only overall RoB had statistically significant effects.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As some original studies failed to report on previously identified vulnerable groups (e.g., individuals living alone), these could not be tested as predictors.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies had a serious overall RoB. For ten studies (seven of which were included in the main analyses), RoB was rated as moderate”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, there was a substantial number of studies with high RoB due to confounding, whereas bias due to selective reporting of results (including effect estimates) was rare”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Risk of bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As included studies mainly derived from the US and Europe, whereas South America, Asia/Oceania, and Africa were underrepresented, the present findings might not be generalizable to populations not conforming to the WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) stereotype (Henrich et al., 2010).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the final model (21 studies, R2 = .29), overall RoB rating (B = −0.35 [−0.64, −0.07]) was the only significant predictor, indicating that an overall lower RoB was associated with smaller effect sizes”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Additional Analysis: Meta-Regression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This is because loneliness is related to factors other than social isolation, including temporally stable characteristics of the individual (Mund et al., 2020) and their environment such as personality traits, need for contact and expectations of relationships (Qualter et al., 2015), physical and mental health, and cultural norms (Gierveld et al., 2018; Lim et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mund et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Qualter et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Gierveld et al., 2018
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bias domains included in the ROBINS-I tool (Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.2, 2021, Chapter 25, section 4) were used”
- Also stated in: § Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias · plain
“For each study and domain, the RoB was independently rated by two authors as “low”, “moderate” or “serious”. Their assessments were merged”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“which increases the risk of premature mortality and mental and physical health conditions”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“largely due to their serious impact on longevity, mental and physical health, and well-being (Fried et al., 2020; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fried et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This step was conducted independently by four members of the research group (postdoctoral/senior researchers with previous experience conducting reviews and/or meta-analyses, three psychologists (two full professors) and one medical doctor (assistant professor))”
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
“Discrepancies were resolved through discussion”
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
“Senior researchers (mathematician and medical doctor/psychologist, full professors) verified the eligibility of included studies”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Study Selection
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Selection · plain
In the paper
“A more recent systematic review, which included neither a meta-analysis nor a meta-regression (Buecker & Horstmann, 2021), found that longitudinal studies mainly reported increases in loneliness”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buecker & Horstmann, 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies have reported stable (Peng & Roth, 2021; Sibley et al., 2020), as well as increases (Kovacs et al., 2021; Macdonald & Hülür, 2021) and decreases (Bartrés-Faz et al., 2021) in loneliness levels”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peng & Roth, 2021
- Not checked yetcites Sibley et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Kovacs et al., 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, it remains unclear whether loneliness has increased overall since the pandemic started (e.g., Killgore et al., 2020; Sutin et al., 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Killgore et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Sutin et al., 2020
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This systematic review with meta-analysis was registered at PROSPERO (ID CRD42021246771)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“The study protocol was registered before conducting the search”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“Throughout the systematic review, the latest PRISMA guidelines were followed (Page et al., 2021)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Search Strategy and Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Page et al., 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ascertain the results’ robustness, a series of sensitivity analyses were performed (1) including only studies with no ‘serious’ or ‘critical’ overall RoB rating, (2) combining longitudinal and pseudo-longitudinal study designs, (3) incorporating pre-pandemic assessments that overlapped with the date cut-offs specified above, and (4) excluding clinical populations”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Summary Measures/Methods of Synthesis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis of changes in mental health, focusing on longitudinal studies and natural experiments with pre-pandemic comparisons, found no evidence of increase in loneliness (based on three studies) (Prati & Mancini, 2021)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For use in sensitivity analyses and meta-regression, an overall RoB rating was constructed (≥1 “serious” rating in any domain resulted in a “serious” overall RoB; overall “low” RoB was only present when all domains were rated “low” risk; otherwise, overall risk was considered “moderate”)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Methods > Methods for Assessing Risk to Internal Validity/Risk of Bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“previous research has shown that particularly sustained or chronic loneliness jeopardizes mental and physical health (Cacioppo et al., 2015; National Academies of Science, 2020)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cacioppo et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites National Academies of Science, 2020
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The confidence in the finding that there has been an increase in loneliness – albeit small – during the pandemic is strengthened by the results of the sensitivity analyses, the inclusion of only high-quality and longitudinal research in the meta-analyses, the relatively large number of studies with a pooled sample of 45,734 participants, and the lack of any indication of publication bias”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lack of control samples unaffected by the pandemic weakens possible causal inference, making it more difficult to attribute the increase in loneliness to the pandemic.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the informative value of the meta-regression was still hampered by the limited number of predictors that could be tested on the basis of the available studies (which also necessitated a stepwise procedure).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A previous rapid review and meta-analysis (Prati & Mancini, 2021) reported small increases in mental distress (overall g = 0.17) based on longitudinal studies”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Their synthesis showed no statistically significant change in loneliness (g = 0.12, p = .34)”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This constitutes a small (Cohen, 1992; Ferguson, 2009) effect, which was also heterogeneous”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Ferguson, 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the examination of the studentized residuals, robustness analyses revealed that there was no indication of outliers and according to the Cook’s distances, none of the studies were overly influential”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Results > Results of Individual Studies and Meta-Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The numerical values of effect size indices often provide limited understanding of the real-world significance of those effects, as even statistically small effects can be of high importance (e.g., Meyer et al., 2001).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meyer et al., 2001
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Restriction measures were coded based on official mandates, however, this might have been imprecise if measures differed between regions and/or if the assessment spanned a period in which these rules changed.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, as the pandemic progressed differently around the world, we used regional cut-offs to distinguish whether study assessments had taken place before or during the pandemic, but individuals might also have been affected by restrictions outside their place of residence (e.g., travel bans).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, an alternative explanation for increases in loneliness in the population was recently provided by Buecker et al. (2021) who reported linear increases in emerging adults over the last decades.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations Including Constraints on Generality
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buecker et al., 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research has shown positive effects of interventions enhancing social support (such as buddy-care programs) (Masi et al., 2011).”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Masi et al., 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Prati and Mancini (2021) explored, using meta-regression, predictors of increases in mental health symptoms during the pandemic. They found no effects of mean age, gender, or study design, either.”
§ Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prati & Mancini, 2021
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The pandemic and mitigation measures led to fewer social contacts (greater social isolation).
“Since its outbreak, many countries around the world have enacted shelter-in-place and physical distancing orders, travel bans, and switched to remote work and education resulting in fewer social contacts (i.e., greater social isolation), which may in turn have increased loneliness”
The paper relies on this without support.
Different loneliness measures assess the same underlying construct and can be pooled using standardized mean differences.
“For interval- or pseudo-interval-scaled outcomes (continuous loneliness scores), weighted standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g) were used as effect size estimators”
The paper relies on this without support.
Loneliness is a risk factor for premature mortality and for mental and physical health problems.
“However, as loneliness constitutes a risk for premature mortality and mental and physical health, it should be closely monitored, ideally in combination with potential risk and protective factors and health outcomes to derive appropriate interventions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Previous literature points out that social distancing and changes to the quantity and frequency of social interactions due to the pandemic sometimes led to a significant disruption of social networks (Lampraki et al., 2022) and loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
From Social connections combat loneliness and promote wellbeing among college students coming out of the COVID-19 pandemic (2025) · cites this paper as Ernst et al., 2022
In the citing paper
“These interventions address structural drivers of loneliness identified in public health research (Ernst et al. 2022;WHO 2023).”
From Not a Silver Bullet for Loneliness: How Attachment and Age Shape Intimacy with AI Companions (2026) · cites this paper as Ernst et al. 2022
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value: (Z = 0.205, p = .238
MinorThe paper reports p = .238 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .838 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .838
“(Z = 0.205, p = .238”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upz = 0.205reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .838
“(Z = 0.205, p = .238”
- Consistentz = 4.02reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z=4.02, p < .001”
- Consistentz = 2.25reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .024
“Z=2.25, p = .02”
- Consistentz = 0.236reported p = .813 · recomputed p = .813
“(Z = 0.236, p = .813”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Risk-of-bias effect is interpreted in opposite directions
MinorThe results say lower risk of bias was associated with smaller effects, while the discussion says higher risk of bias was associated with smaller effects. The reported negative coefficient, with moderate risk coded 0 and serious risk coded 1, supports the discussion's direction.
“overall RoB rating (B = −0.35 [−0.64, −0.07]) was the only significant predictor, indicating that an overall lower RoB was associated with smaller effect sizes.”
“studies’ higher RoB was negatively associated with the observed effect sizes.”
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Cited by
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How COVID-19 shaped mental health: from infection to pandemic effects
Penninx, B. W. J. H., Benros, M. E., Klein, R. S., & Vinkers, C. H. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-02028-2 · Cited by 477
Risk factors for loneliness: A literature review
Barjaková, M., Garnero, A., & d’Hombres, B. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116163 · Cited by 296
Gajendran, R. S., Ponnapalli, A. R., Wang, C., & Javalagi, A. A. (2024) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12641 · Cited by 225
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“However, only some of these systematic reviews and meta-analyses included the prevalence of child and adolescent loneliness (e.g., [15]) and even fewer have focused on loneliness with the well-being of children and adolescents (e.g., [16]).”
BackgroundEducational Research and Innovation
OECD, & Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (2009) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/20769679 · Cited by 129
Nakou, A., Dragioti, E., Bastas, N. S., Ζαγοριανάκου, Ν., Kakaidi, V., Tsartsalis, D., Mantzoukas, S., Tatsis, F., Veronese, N., Solmi, M., et al. (2025) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-024-02925-1 · Cited by 140
Dinh, C.-M., & Park, S.-J. (2023) · Electronic Commerce Research · doi:10.1007/s10660-022-09662-5 · Cited by 123
“Furthermore, the lack of face-to-face interactions resulting from social distancing policies has also increased loneliness in the general population [32].”
Schäfer, S. K., Supke, M., Kausmann, C., Schaubruch, L. M., Lieb, K., & Cohrdes, C. (2024) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-024-00138-w · Cited by 124
Social isolation and social connectedness among young adult cancer survivors: A systematic review
Fox, R. S., Armstrong, G. E., Gaumond, J. S., Vigoureux, T. F. D., Miller, C. H., Sanford, S. D., Salsman, J. M., Katsanis, E., Badger, T. A., Reed, D. R., et al. (2023) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/cncr.34934 · Cited by 79
Kim, S., Hwang, J., Lee, J. H., Park, J., Kim, H. J., Son, Y., Oh, H. Y., Smith, L., Kang, J., Fond, G. B., et al. (2024) · World Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s12519-024-00837-8 · Cited by 75
“In particular, loneliness has been identified as a factor deeply related to depression and anxiety, showing a significant increase during the pandemic [24].”
Screening for loneliness in representative population samples: Validation of a single-item measure
Reinwarth, A. C., Ernst, M., Krakau, L., Brähler, E., & Beutel, M. E. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279701 · Cited by 78
“, adapted from questionnaires used to assess different constructs such as depression) hampers the quality and meaningful integration of international, original research [5].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationLiebmann, M., Pitman, A., Hsueh, Y.-C., Bertotti, M., & Pearce, E. (2022) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-022-08656-1 · Cited by 68
Baker, M. B., Liu, E., Bully, M. A., Hsieh, A., Nozari, A., Tuler, M., & Binda, D. D. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12171765 · Cited by 72
“With advancements in remote telecommunication, increased opportunities for working from home, and the recent COVID-19 pandemic requiring sheltering in place, U.S. adults have experienced an increased prevalence of loneliness [30,41].”
BackgroundAll the Lonely People: An Integrated Review and Research Agenda on Work and Loneliness
McCarthy, J. M., Erdoğan, B., Bauer, T. N., Kudret, S., & Campion, E. D. (2025) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063241313320 · Cited by 77
“In some ways, this is not surprising, as the COVID-19 pandemic ushered in a new era in which loneliness became even more pronounced (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Loneliness in Emerging Adulthood: A Scoping Review
Kirwan, E. M., Burns, A., O’Súilleabháin, P. S., Summerville, S., McGeehan, M., McMahon, J., Gowda, A., & Creaven, A. (2024) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-024-00240-4 · Cited by 69
“One systematic review comparing loneliness before and during the Covid-19 pandemic found an increase in loneliness in younger participant groups (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Bergstedt, J., Pasman, J. A., Ma, Z., Harder, A., Yao, S., Parker, N., Treur, J. L., Smit, D. J. A., Frei, O., Shadrin, A. A., et al. (2024) · Nature Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1038/s44161-024-00488-y · Cited by 60
“This emphasizes the need for interventions and preventive policies for reducing loneliness in the population, which has further increased in prevalence during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and has been described as a pandemic itself 68,69 .”
Limongi, F., Siviero, P., Trevisan, C., Noale, M., Catalani, F., Ceolin, C., Conti, S., Rosa, E. D., Perdixi, E., Remelli, F., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1166815 · Cited by 53
On social health: history, conceptualization, and population patterning
Doyle, D. M., & Link, B. G. (2024) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2024.2314506 · Cited by 65
“Thorough consideration of each dimension could help guide health policy formation in order to avoid unintended consequences of enacting or prescribing such interventions (e.g., the global rise in loneliness documented after COVID-19; Ernst et al., 2022), which ultimately have important consequences for quality of life.”
Qi, M., Wu, T., Duan, W., & Li, S. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15050696 · Cited by 66
“The failure of employees to establish meaningful social connections with others (e.g., leaders or colleagues) within the organization can result in the emergence of negative emotions, such as loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022; Luhmann et al., 2023; Sullivan & Bendell, 2023).”
Relationship between loneliness and internet addiction: a meta-analysis
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“Longitudinal studies have shown that loneliness levels increased after the pandemic [83].”
BackgroundHeng, S., & Zhang, Z. (2025) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s531805 · Cited by 31
“7,8 During this period, millions turned to CAI for companionship.”
Social connection as a key target for youth mental health
Birrell, L., Werner‐Seidler, A., Davidson, L., Andrews, J. L., & Slade, T. N. (2025) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2025.200395 · Cited by 51
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“[10] included only longitudinal studies examining loneliness prior to and during the pandemic.”
BackgroundResultTrauma, adversity, and biological aging: behavioral mechanisms relevant to treatment and theory
Bourassa, K. J., & Sbarra, D. A. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03004-9 · Cited by 44
“…evidence suggests that, at the level of the US population, loneliness increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in relation to pre-pandemic levels [117], and these disturbances in social functioning are hypothesized to play a role in shaping pandemic-related increases in mental health disorder…”
BackgroundLippke, S., & Warner, L. M. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12420 · Cited by 41
Schäfer, S. K., Lindner, S., Kunzler, A. M., Meerpohl, J. J., & Lieb, K. (2023) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afad170 · Cited by 36
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“With rising trends of social isolation and loneliness (Cigna, 2022; Ernst et al., 2022), the public health consequences may correspondingly increase, without action to reverse this trend.”
BackgroundKleinau, E., Lamba, T., Jaskiewicz, W., Gorentz, K., Hungerbuehler, I., Rahimi, D., Kokota, D., Maliwichi, L., Jamu, E. S., Zumazuma, A., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0303370 · Cited by 47
“27 of the COVID-19 pandemic on loneliness [55].”
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“7 Although they each have their own unique characteristics, loneliness and depression are interrelated conditions that can in fl uence and exacerbate each other.”
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Ip, H., Suen, Y. N., Hui, C. L. M., Cheung, C., Wong, S. M. Y., & Chen, E. Y. H. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-75739-w · Cited by 31
“The use of diverse forms and variables in different studies has resulted in scattered findings 21 , making it difficult to establish a clear depiction of their predictive validity.”
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“Global Meta-Analysis and several European studies show the global scale of the issue (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundMagis‐Weinberg, L., Vargas, M. A., Carrizales, A., Trinh, C. T., Lopez, D. E. M., Hussong, A. M., & Lansford, J. E. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12931 · Cited by 35
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“Personal and environmental factors such as personality traits, relationship expectations, physical and mental health, and cultural norms may all contribute to an individual’s perception of loneliness, regardless of the level of social contact [22].”
BackgroundSeewer, N., Skoko, A., Käll, A., Andersson, G., Luhmann, M., Berger, T., & Krieger, T. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-57254-0 · Cited by 27
“Albeit prevalence rates of loneliness have increased after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic 4 , loneliness was even before a prevalent phenomenon.”
BackgroundHausman, H. K., Dai, Y. E., O’Shea, A. M., Dominguez, V. N., Fillingim, M., Calfee, K., Carballo, D., Hernandez, C. M., Perryman, S., Kraft, J. N., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.999107 · Cited by 28
“pre-pandemic timepoints; however, the effects were small and heterogenous (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundWang, X., Cao, X., Yu, J., Jin, S., Li, S., Chen, L., Liu, Z., Ge, X., & Lu, Y. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-05609-2 · Cited by 30
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“In general, younger age groups were found to be more likely to experience loneliness (6, 7, 9, 21).”
BackgroundUnderstanding loneliness in late life
Huxhold, O., & Fiori, K. L. (2024) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101801 · Cited by 28
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In-person interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness: An evidence and gap map
Welch, V. A., Ghogomu, E. T., Dowling, S., Barbeau, V. I., Al‐Zubaidi, A. A. A., Beveridge, E., Bondok, M., Desai, P., Doyle, R., Huang, J. X., et al. (2024) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1408 · Cited by 29
Self-citationFlesaker, M., Freibott, C. E., Evans, T. C., Gradus, J. L., & Lipson, S. K. (2024) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2024.2400105 · Cited by 23
“37 This is highly relevant to the current study given the timing of data collection (2021–2022).”
Prevalence of Loneliness in Older Adults: A Scoping Review
Schroyen, S., Janssen, N., Duffner, L. A., Veenstra, M. Y., Pyrovolaki, E., Salmon, É., & Adam, S. (2023) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2023/7726692 · Cited by 25
“Te increase in loneliness is confrmed across age groups in general meta-analysis as well as the great heterogeneity between studies [46].”
Jafarlou, S., Azimi, I., Lai, J., Wang, Y., Labbaf, S., Nguyen, B., Qureshi, H., Marcotullio, C., Borelli, J. L., Dutt, N. D., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0298949 · Cited by 22
“However, a recent meta-analysis by Ernst and colleagues [18] suggested a small yet significant effect size in the differences between feelings of loneliness before and after the pandemic.”
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Adolescents: An Opportunity to Build Resilient Systems
Nadeem, E., & Meter, A. V. (2023) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171221140641d · Cited by 24
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“Known risk factors for experiencing loneliness include female gender, younger age, not being married/part-nered, experiencing partner loss, living alone, being unemployed, having limited social networks, low level of social activity, poor self-reported health or mental health difficulties [13–15].”
BackgroundInfluentialJing, J., Dahlberg, L., Canter, D. V., & Plater-Zyberk, E. (2024) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2024/4172682 · Cited by 27
“…of public space including third places implemented in many parts of the world were assumingly associated with an increase in loneliness in public discussions, systematic reviews of longitudinal studies reveal a small and heterogeneous increase in loneliness before and during the pandemic [15, 16].”
BackgroundCompassionate AI Design, Governance, and Use
Ciriello, R. F., Chen, A. Y., & Rubinsztein, Z. A. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society · doi:10.1109/tts.2025.3538125 · Cited by 19
“Given that loneliness affects one in four people globally and contributes to mental and physical health challenges, these technologies risk intensifying an already critical issue [16], [17], [18], [19].”
The burdens of poverty during the COVID-19 pandemic
Petersen, J., Hettich, N., Baumkötter, R., Wild, P. S., Pfeiffer, N., Münzel, T. F., König, J., Lackner, K. J., & Beutel, M. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2022.995318 · Cited by 19
“Also, multiple studies have identified low income to be a major risk factor for poor mental health outcomes during the pandemic (Daly et al., 2020; Peters et al., 2020; Santabárbara et al., 2020; Breslau et al., 2021; Fancourt et al., 2021; Kunzler et al., 2021; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021; Benatov et al., 2022; Bonati et…”
BackgroundSelf-citationGabarrell‐Pascuet, A., Varga, T. V., Moneta, M. V., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Lara, E., Olaya, B., Haro, J. M., & Domènech‐Abella, J. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.02.042 · Cited by 21
Schütz, R., & Bilz, L. (2023) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-023-03728-x · Cited by 23
“DasThema Einsamkeit ist für die öffentliche Gesundheit und den politischen Diskurs von zunehmender Bedeutung [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialMoayad, L., Zajner, C., Popovic, M. M., Mercer, G., Kertes, P. J., Muni, R. H., Hall, E., Goel, N., Rana, M., & Kohly, R. P. (2023) · American Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2023.06.015 · Cited by 19
Lara, E., Matovic, S., Vasiliadis, H., Grenier, S., Berbiche, D., de la Torre‐Luque, A., & Gouin, J. (2023) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2023.105133 · Cited by 21
Brown, J. K., & Papp, L. M. (2023) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3320 · Cited by 25
Reliability and validity evaluation of the stigma of loneliness scale in Chinese college students
Fan, Z., Shi, X., Yang, S., Sun, Y., & Chen, R. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-17738-0 · Cited by 24
“Loneliness has become a global public health problem that seriously plagues people of different age groups [3, 4].”
BackgroundGlobal Trends and Disparities in Social Isolation
Fuller‐Rowell, T. E., Sultana, S., & Kawachi, I. I. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.32008 · Cited by 21
PROTOCOL: In-person interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness: An evidence and gap map
Welch, V. A., Ghogomu, E. T., Dowling, S., Barbeau, V. I., Al-Zubaidi, A. A., Beveridge, E., Bondok, M., Desai, P., Doyle, R., Huang, J., et al. (2023) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1340 · Cited by 20
“Small increases in the prevalence of loneliness were also observed in a recent synthesis of longitudinal studies during the COVID‐19 pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022).”
ResultSelf-citationDahlberg, L., von Saenger, I., Naseer, M., Lennartsson, C., & Agahi, N. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1444990 · Cited by 22
“…and a general lack of nationally representative or well-stratified samples has been noted, studies generally found an increase in loneliness and social isolation in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic (25–27), especially among studies conducted more than 3 months into the pandemic (17).”
BackgroundSocial Bonds Retain Oxytocin-Mediated Brain-Liver Axis to Retard Atherosclerosis
Ko, S., Anzai, A., Liu, X., Kinouchi, K., Yamanoi, K., Torimitsu, T., Ichihara, G., Kitakata, H., Shirakawa, K., Katsumata, Y., et al. (2024) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/circresaha.124.324638 · Cited by 19
“10 Consequently, SI and loneliness emerge as critical determinants of CVD and all-cause mortality.”
The pandemic and social experience: For whom did discrimination and social isolation increase?
Fuller‐Rowell, T. E., Nichols, O. I., El‐Sheikh, M., Burrow, A. L., Ong, A. D., & Ryff, C. D. (2022) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000561 · Cited by 21
Self-citationKretzler, B., König, H., & Hajek, A. (2022) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2022.104900 · Cited by 18
“, 2022) as well as among the general population (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Ernst, M., Brähler, E., Kruse, J., Kampling, H., & Beutel, M. E. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100486 · Cited by 22
Self-citationSiddiq, H., Teklehaimanot, S., & Guzman, A. A. (2023) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-023-02549-2 · Cited by 19
Lim, M. H., Hennessey, A., Qualter, P., Smith, B. J., Thurston, L., Eres, R., & Holt‐Lunstad, J. (2024) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-024-02740-z · Cited by 24
Petersen, J., Reinwarth, A. C., Beutel, M. E., Brähler, E., & Decker, O. (2024) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100496 · Cited by 19
“…social relations has increasingly come to the fore-front of research and public health following discussion about psycho-social consequences of the public health measures during the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health (e.g., social isolation and loneliness) (Ernst et al., 2022; Holt-Lunstad, 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationEngel, L., Rizal, M. F., Clifford, S., Faller, J., Lim, M. H., Le, L. K., Chatterton, M. L., & Mihalopoulos, C. (2025) · PharmacoEconomics · doi:10.1007/s40273-025-01516-w · Cited by 21
“Many public health measures enacted during the pandemic exacerbated feelings of lone-liness and social isolation [8], prompting calls for further investigations into their psychological, social, and economic impacts.”
Bırni, G., Satıcı, S. A., & Deniz, M. E. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106112 · Cited by 21
What allays loneliness? A fine-grained examination of daily social interactions
Silva, G., Rum, R., Brennan, J., Rottenberg, J. A., & Goodman, F. R. (2023) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075231181709 · Cited by 19
“Stay-at-home orders coupled with fears of spreading illness disrupted people ’ s socialization and increased rates of loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundLuk, J. W., Leiter, N., Stangl, B. L., Gunawan, T., Schwandt, M. L., Goldman, D. A., Diazgranados, N., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.115826 · Cited by 16
Ernst, M., Beutel, M. E., & Brähler, E. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06016-x · Cited by 18
Self-citationMatthaeus, H., Godara, M., Silveira, S., Hecht, M., Voelkle, M., & Singer, T. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21050570 · Cited by 15
“This rising trend in loneliness, also referred to as a loneliness epidemic [13], has been amplified in recent years by the COVID-19 pandemic [14].”
ResultOpioid Regulation of Social Homeostasis: Connecting Loneliness to Addiction
Løseth, G. E., Eikemo, M., & Leknes, S. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.11.011 · Cited by 16
“Cross-sectional studies reported increased prevalence of loneliness, pain, and substance use during the first years of the pandemic (11– 13).”
What works to reduce loneliness: a rapid systematic review of 101 interventions
Blodgett, J. M., Tiley, K., Harkness, F., & Musella, M. (2025) · Journal of Public Health Policy · doi:10.1057/s41271-025-00561-1 · Cited by 17
“Recent reviews of loneliness interventions have highlighted heterogeneity between studies as a major limitation [68, 69].”
Why friendship and loneliness affect our health
Dunbar, R. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15309 · Cited by 18
Broen, T., Choi, Y., Garza, E. Z., Pauly, T., Gerstorf, D., & Hoppmann, C. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1021863 · Cited by 16
Youth loneliness in pandemic times: a qualitative study in Quebec and Ontario
de Velde, C. V., Boudreault, S., & Berniard, L. (2023) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2023.2223671 · Cited by 17
“…age has emerged as one of the most predictive factors of loneliness: while all age groups have experienced a significant increase in loneliness (Ernst et al., 2022; Kovacs et al., 2021; O’Sullivan et al., 2021), the youngest age groups have experienced the largest increase in the United…”
BackgroundAl‐Sibani, N., Chan, M. F., Al‐Huseini, S., Kharusi, N. A., Guillemin, G. J., Al-Abri, M., Ganesh, A., Hasani, Y. A., & Al‐Adawi, S. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279612 · Cited by 15
A Longitudinal Study on Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan
Lal, S., Nguyen, T. X. T., Sulemana, A.-S., Yuktadatta, P., Khan, M. S. R., & Kadoya, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811248 · Cited by 15
“[23] explored whether changes such as lockdowns, physical distancing, and the switch to remote work and school during the pandemic increased people’s loneliness and found that while these measures increased social isolation, they do not always lead to loneliness.”
BackgroundLoneliness, health and applied psychology
Steptoe, A. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12417 · Cited by 18
Wollast, R., Lacourse, É., Mageau, G. A., Pelletier-Dumas, M., Dorfman, A., Dupéré, V., Lina, J.-M., Stolle, D., & de la Sablonnière, R. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0292522 · Cited by 14
“Based on the pooled effect sizes of 19 studies, Ernst et al. [2] found an overall small increase in loneliness since the start of the pandemic (see also [4] for similar results).”
He, T., Tu, C. C., & Bai, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.948214 · Cited by 20
“Loneliness because of COVID-19related isolation and social distancing has negatively affected individuals’ mental health, anxiety, and perceived social support, thus reducing their sense of happiness and increasing their risk of mental health problems; these outcomes of lockdown and quarantining are prevalent, particu…”
BackgroundLee, J., Chang, S. M., Hahm, B., Park, J. E., Seong, S. J., Hong, J. P., Jeon, H. J., An, H., & Kim, B. (2023) · Journal of Korean Medical Science · doi:10.3346/jkms.2023.38.e287 · Cited by 14
Wollast, R., Preece, D. A., Schmitz, M., Bigot, A., Gross, J. J., & Luminet, O. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2270201 · Cited by 15
“These fi ndings join others in emphasising the important roles that everyday experiences of loneliness play in shaping global indicators of health and well-being (for a systematic review with meta-analysis, see Ernst et al., 2022).”
BackgroundVilleneuve, P. J., Gill, G. K., Cottagiri, S. A., Dales, R., Rainham, D. G. C., Ross, N. A., Dogan, H., Griffith, L. E., Raina, P. S., & Crouse, D. L. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-023-00841-x · Cited by 15
“Loneliness has been defined as the perceived difference between desired and achieved connection (Peplau and Perlman 1982; Ernst et al. 2022), but can be understood on a social, emotional (Weiss 1973), and existential basis (Bolmsjo et al. 2019).”
BackgroundShrout, M. R., Wilson, S. J., Farrell, A. K., Rice, T. M., Weiser, D. A., Novak, J. R., & Monk, J. K. (2024) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12943 · Cited by 22
Disparities by Social Determinants of Health: Links Between Long COVID and Cardiovascular Disease
Banerjee, A. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2024.02.017 · Cited by 15
Johnson, K. T., Zawadzki, M. J., & Kho, C. (2024) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2024.04.003 · Cited by 16
“21 Furthermore, poor sleep is common among college students 22-24 and often increases over time.”
Loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from five European countries
Rebechi, A., Lepinteur, A., Clark, A. E., Rohde, N., Vögele, C., & D’Ambrosio, C. (2024) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2024.101427 · Cited by 19
“Many articles have explored the socio-demographic determinants of loneliness (Bu et al., 2020a, 2020b; Buecker and Horstmann, 2022; Ernst et al., 2022; Groarke et al., 2020; Killgore et al., 2020; Hu and Gutman, 2021; Lampraki et al., 2022; Losada-Baltar et al., 2021; Rumas et al., 2021; Okruszek…”
BackgroundWilding, S., O'Connor, D., Ferguson, E., Wetherall, K., Cleare, S., O'Carroll, R., Robb, K., & O'Connor, R. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114876 · Cited by 21
“It is clear from recent meta-analytical findings that there were small, but robust increases in loneliness during the pandemic (Ernst et al., 2022).”
Beyond Finding Purpose: Motivating a Translational Science of Purpose Acquisition
Burrow, A. L. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20126091 · Cited by 9
Im, J. H. B., Bronskill, S. E., Strauss, R., Gruneir, A., Guan, J., Boblitz, A., Lu, M., Rochon, P. A., & Savage, R. (2023) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.18477 · Cited by 14
“52 Although recent estimates of loneliness in older Canadians, which range from 32% to 43%, are comparable to our study, the relationship between lone-liness and polypharmacy could be changing in ways that are not yet clear.”
ResultHerbolsheimer, F., Peters, A., Wagner, S. A., Willich, S. N., Krist, L., Pischon, T., Nimptsch, K., Gastell, S., Brandes, M., Brandes, B., et al. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-17675-y · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Ernst, M., Niederer, D., Werner, A. M., Czaja, S. J., Mikton, C., Ong, A. D., Rosen, T., Brähler, E., & Beutel, M. E.
- Affiliations
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- Weill Cornell Medicine (US)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Cornell University (US)
- NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ernst, Mareike
- ORCID
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2022-07
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 660-677
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- PMC
- PMC9768682
- OpenAlex
- W4229451984
- Cited by
- 584
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 83 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 172 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 41
- FWCI
- 114.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Mainz Research Center for Mental Health
- National Institute on Aging (K76 AG054866)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- loneliness, COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing, prevalence of loneliness, pre-pandemic comparison, mental health, social isolation, risk factors for loneliness
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Humans, Loneliness, Prospective Studies, Pandemics
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