Cited by 363Developmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and TestingEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis.

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Spiegel, Jamie A., Goodrich, J. Marc, Morris, Brittany M., Osborne, Colleen M., Lonigan, Christopher J.·2021·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/bul0000322PMC PMC8238326

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Abstract

The primary goal of this study was to examine developmental patterns among the relations between components of executive function (EF; working memory [WM], inhibitory control, shifting), and academic outcomes (reading, mathematics, language) in elementary school-age children. These relations were examined within the context of the development of EF and of academic skills utilizing an extension of the unity and diversity, intrinsic cognitive load, and dual process theories. Using meta-analytic methods, we summarized results from 299 studies from 293 articles/dissertations, representing 65,605 elementary school-age children (42-191 months old [M = 101 months, SD = 24.49 months]). Results indicated that accounting for general EF (by including the correlations among EF tasks in meta-analytic path models and accounting for effects between all three EF components and academic outcomes simultaneously) produced weaker relations between EF and academic skills than the bivariate relations which have been reported in prior meta-analytic reviews. However, although reduced, all relations between EF and academic outcomes remained significant throughout elementary school. Whereas WM was consistently moderately associated with reading, math, and oral language across development, the developmental trends for the relations between inhibitory control and shifting with academic outcomes varied based upon the academic skill examined. On the academic side, whereas the relations between reading and language skills with EF components varied throughout elementary school, few developmental changes were found in the relations between EF components and math skills across elementary school. Future directions and implications of findings for the conceptualization of the impact of EF on academics are discussed within the context of relevant theoretical models. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

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Cartwright, K. B., Barber, A. T., & Archer, C. J. (2022) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2022.2084399 · Cited by 15
“Finally, recent meta-analytic evidence shows each of the core EFs is significantly and positively related to word problem solving across elementary school (Spiegel et al., 2021).”
Background
Directly assessed and adult-reported executive functions: Associations with academic skills in Ghana
Ahmed, I., Steyer, L., Suntheimer, N. M., Wolf, S., & Obradović, J. (2022) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101437 · Cited by 17
Childhood trauma and violent behavior in adolescents are differentially related to cognitive-emotional deficits
Katembu, S., Zahedi, A., & Sommer, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1001132 · Cited by 19
Relations Between Executive Functions and Reading Comprehension: A Study of Fourth-Grade Students with and Without Reading Comprehension Difficulties
Escobar, J., Espinoza, V., & Balboa, S. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14121174 · Cited by 21
Patterns of Attention and Anxiety in Predicting Arithmetic Fluency among School-Aged Children
Orbach, L., & Fritz, A. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12030376 · Cited by 17
Drivers of the socio‐economic disadvantage gap in England: Sequential pathways that include the home learning environment and self‐regulation as mediators
Joseph, A., Sylva, Κ., Sammons, P., & Siraj, I. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12629 · Cited by 20
Cognitive Foundations of Early Mathematics: Investigating the Unique Contributions of Numerical, Executive Function, and Spatial Skills
Whitehead, H. L., & Hawes, Z. C. K. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11120221 · Cited by 21
“The reasons for this link are varied and appear to depend on the EF and mathematics skills under question. these measures — children’s basic numerical these measures — children’s basic numerical Spiegel et al. 2021).”
BackgroundInfluential
Latent network analysis of executive functions across development
Menu, I., Borst, G., & Cachia, A. (2024) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.355 · Cited by 18
Unveiling the cognitive network organization through cognitive performance
Borne, A., Lemaitre, C., Bulteau, C., Baciu, M. V., & Perrone‐Bertolotti, M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-62234-5 · Cited by 14
“Our findings showed that language functions are interrelated with executive functions and memory in healthy cognitive functioning, aligning with models emphasizing interactions between language, executive functions, and memory 5,14,52 .”
Background
The role of working memory and organizational skills in academic functioning for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Harmon, S. L., & Kofler, M. J. (2024) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000960 · Cited by 23
Embedding Executive Function Training Into Early Literacy Instruction for Dual Language Learners: A Pilot Study
Goodrich, J. M., Peng, P., Bohaty, J. J., Leiva, S., & Thayer, L. (2023) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2022_jslhr-22-00253 · Cited by 16
Self-citation
Longitudinal trajectories of maternal parenting stress in Korean families: Children's executive function and school adjustment
Park, S., Oh, W., Kim, Y.-H., Kim, H. K., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2022) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12661 · Cited by 13
The developing of executive function skills through culturally organized autonomy and helping
Alcalá, L. (2023) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2460 · Cited by 14
The Behavioral and Neurobiological Relationships between Executive Function and Reading: A Review of Current and Preliminary Findings
Burgess, A. N., & Cutting, L. E. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12378 · Cited by 14
Uncovering the reciprocal relationship between domain-specific and domain-general skills: Combined numerical and working memory training improves children’s mathematical knowledge
DePascale, M., Feng, Y., Lin, G. C., Barkin, R., Akhavein, K., Tavassolie, N. S., Ghil, E., Gaye, F., Buschkuehl, M., Ramani, G. B., et al. (2023) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102252 · Cited by 17
A Qualitative Study into Teacher–Student Interaction Strategies Employed to Support Primary School Children’s Working Memory
Sankalaite, S., Huizinga, M., Pollé, S., Xu, C., de Vries, N., Hens, E., & Baeyens, D. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13111149 · Cited by 35
Enhancing children’s numeracy and executive functions via their explicit integration
Scerif, G., Sučević, J., Andrews, H., Blakey, E., Gattas, S., Godfrey, A., Hawes, Z. C. K., Howard, S. J., Kent, L., Merkley, R., et al. (2025) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-025-00302-9 · Cited by 16
“Multiple empirical and meta-analytic ﬁ ndings highlight robust and replicable correlations between mathematics and EF, both construed as a holistic construct and as separable components, throughout the primary school years 5 – 7 and from the preschool period 8 – 15 .”
Relating mathematical abilities to numerical skills and executive functions in informal and formal schooling
Wongupparaj, P., & Kadosh, R. C. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00740-9 · Cited by 13
“Several studies demonstrated the significant connection among specific executive functioning, that is, working memory, inhibition and shifting abilities, and mathematical ability in children [35, 42].”
Background
Effects of the special olympics unified sports soccer training program on executive function in adolescents with intellectual disabilities
Xiao, R., Ping, X., Liang, X., Zou, Z., Zhong, J., Xiang, M.-Q., & Hou, X. (2023) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/j.jesf.2023.12.006 · Cited by 14
“Therefore, it is essential to identify and support the EF needs of individuals with ID. 19,24,25 Deepening our knowledge about executive function and finding simple and feasible ways to improve it in adolescents with ID could help researchers, clinicians, caregivers, and parents improve…”
Background
Behavioral observation and assessment protocol for language and social-emotional development study in children aged 0–6: the Chinese baby connectome project
Xu, X., Wang, Z., Zhang, W., Guo, J., Wei, W., Zhang, M., Ding, X., Liu, X., Yang, Q., Wang, K., et al. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-02031-x · Cited by 19
Adaptive habits: understanding executive function and its development
Niebaum, J. C., Zengilowski, A., Katz, B., Shah, P., & Munakata, Y. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2025.10.016 · Cited by 14
Role of executive function in mathematical ability of children in different grades
Zhu, X., & Zhao, X. (2023) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2023.00696 · Cited by 13
Executive functions, oral vocabularies, and early literacy skills mediate sociodemographic gaps in mathematics and science achievement during elementary school
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Oh, Y., & Hillemeier, M. M. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102447 · Cited by 24
The Timing of Executive Function Development is Associated with Growth in Math Achievement from Preschool through Second GradePreprint
Ahmed, S. F., Montroy, J. J., Skibbe, L. E., Bowles, R. P., & Morrison, F. J. (2022) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101713 · Cited by 16
Comparison of Executive Function Skills between Patients with Cerebral Palsy and Typically Developing Populations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Zimonyi, N., Kói, T., Dombrádi, V., Imrei, M., Nagy, R., Pulay, M. Á., Lang, Z., Hegyi, P., Takács, Z. K., & Túri, I. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13071867 · Cited by 15
“These domain-general skills are important for several cognitive, emotional, and social outcomes such as academic functioning [5–8] and social-emotional wellbeing [9,10].”
Background
The role of mathematical vocabulary in the development of mathematical skills for Spanish-speaking students
Susperreguy, M. I., Burr, S. D. L., Xu, C., Douglas, H. P., Bourque, T., del Río, M. F., Salinas, V., & LeFevre, J. (2024) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2024.101441 · Cited by 12
The Role of Domain-General, Behavioral, and Reading-Specific Executive Function in Reading Comprehension: Does Context-Specific Executive Function Matter?
Peng, P., Liu, Y., Cartwright, K. B., Goodrich, M., Koziol, N. A., Ma, C., & Whitmarsh, C. (2024) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2024.2409635 · Cited by 15
“Moreover, meta-analyses of domain-general EF and academic outcomes suggest only a small-to-moderate correlation ( r s < .35, Follmer, 2018; Jacob & Parkinson, 2015; Peng et al., 2018; Spiegel et al., 2021).”
Longitudinal association between executive function and academic achievement in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 and plexiform neurofibromas
Hou, Y., Wu, X., Allen, T. M., Toledo‐Tamula, M. A., Martin, S. C., Gillespie, A., Goodwin, A., Widemann, B. C., & Wolters, P. L. (2023) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617723000103 · Cited by 11
Supporting Learning Differences: Effects of Cognitive Training on Cognitive Abilities in a School-Based Sample
Looney, L., Wong, E. H., Rosales, K. P., Bacon, J. M., & Wiest, D. J. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14010089 · Cited by 16
Modeling the associations between socioeconomic risk factors, executive function components, and reading among children in rural Côte d’Ivoire
Khan, F., Wortsman, B., Whitehead, H. L., Hannon, J., Aurora, M., Sulik, M. J., Tanoh, F., Hermann, A. K. P. E., Ogan, A., Obradović, J., et al. (2024) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2024.101436 · Cited by 10
Relationship between executive function and persistence in 5-year-olds
Ishikawa, M., Moriguchi, Y., & Kanakogi, Y. (2023) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2023.101361 · Cited by 12
Cognitive predictors of the overlap of reading and math in middle school
Cirino, P. T., Salentine, C. M., Farrell, A., Barnes, M. A., & Roberts, G. J. (2023) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102400 · Cited by 13
Effect of Summer Holiday Programs on Children’s Mental Health and Well-Being: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Eglitis, E., Simpson, C., Singh, B., Olds, T., Machell, A., Virgara, R., Richardson, M., Brannelly, K., Grant, A., Gray, J., et al. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11080887 · Cited by 11
“School supports the development of positive mental health through consistent engagement in educational activities that positively impact students’ cognitive development [13–15].”
Background
Math difficulties in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder do not originate from the visual number sense
Anobile, G., Bartoli, M., Masi, G., Tacchi, A., & Tinelli, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.949391 · Cited by 14
“There is large evidence in the literature suggesting executive functions as a key process that sustains math learning (Cragg et al., 2017; Bellon et al., 2019; Gashaj et al., 2019; Spiegel et al., 2021; Agostini et al., 2022; Santana et al., 2022) as well as indicating poor executive functions in ADHD (Barkley, 1997).”
Background
Predictions of pre-academic mathematical and literacy skills by kindergarten executive functions
Michel, E., Martin, G., & Pope, M. (2024) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2024.101532 · Cited by 12
The role of feedback and working memory for goal-related monitoring and goal revision
Theobald, M., & Brod, G. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102108 · Cited by 9
The Other Side of the Coin – A Call to Investigate the Influence of Reduced Levels of Physical Activity on Children’s Cognition
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“…et al., 2022; Vazou et al., 2019), especially on specific domains of executive functioning, such as inhibitory control (Amatriain-Fernández et al., 2021; Erickson et al., 2019) or working memory (Vasilopoulos et al., 2023), which are associated with academic outcomes (Spiegel et al., 2021).”
Executive Functions, Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning – What are We Talking About? A Review and Introduction of the EMERGE Model
Theobald, M., Koerner, J. K. A., Breitwieser, J., Buhr, L., Karbach, J., Könen, T., Nobbe, L., Reinelt, T., Schaaf, M., Schmiedek, F., et al. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10157-0 · Cited by 12
Examining the Factorial Structure, Reliability, and Predictive Validity of the Portuguese Version of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM)
Limpo, T., Rasteiro, I., Aguiar, S., & Magalhães, S. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02003-5 · Cited by 8
“, 2017), which underlie a wide range of academic skills, closely related to school success (Amukune & Józsa, 2021; Bouzaboul et al., 2020; Cordeiro et al., 2019; Magalhães et al., 2020; Mulder & Cragg, 2014; Samuels et al., 2016; Spiegel et al., 2021; Willoughby et al., 2019).”
BackgroundResult
Executive functions and classroom behaviour in second graders
Heemskerk, C. H. H. M., & Roebers, C. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1141586 · Cited by 12
“Not only are individual differences in EF related to academic performance (e.g., Cortés Pascual et al., 2019; Spiegel et al., 2021), a lack of improvement in EF over time has also been shown to be predictive of academic difficulties in primary school children (e.”
BackgroundInfluential
Executive functioning in child victims of sexual abuse: A multi-informant comparative study
Amédée, L. M., Cyr, C. P., Jean-Thorn, A., & Hébert, M. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106737 · Cited by 11
Agents of change: integration of neuropedagogy in pre-service teacher education
Shvarts-Serebro, I., Ben‐Yehudah, G., Elgavi-Hershler, O., Grobgeld, E., Katzoff, A., Luzzatto, E., Shalom, M., & Harel, T. Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1369394 · Cited by 20
“The development of executive functions predicts how well children will function in educational settings, their ability to deal with challenges in school, and eventually, with the challenges of adult life (Meltzer, 2018; Spiegel et al., 2021).”
Background
Using artificial intelligence in education: decision tree learning results in secondary school students based on cold and hot executive functions
Escolano-Pérez, E., & Losada, J. L. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-04040-y · Cited by 15
“This study emphasises executive functions since: (1) they are variables that signi ﬁ cantly impact learning outcomes (Ahmed et al. 2019; Barnes 2023; Cho et al. 2023; Duckworth et al. 2019; Gunzenhauser & Nückles 2021; Poon 2018; Spiegel et al. 2021; van Tetering et al. 2022).”
Assessing knowledge about self-regulated learning: validation of a measurement tool for preschoolers
Grüneisen, L., Dörrenbächer‐Ulrich, L., Kapsali, E., & Perels, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1332170 · Cited by 9
Dynamic Field Theory of Executive Function: Identifying Early Neurocognitive Markers
McCraw, A., Sullivan, J., Lowery, K., Eddings, R., Heim, H. R., & Buss, A. T. (2024) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12478 · Cited by 8
Executive Functions: What are they Good for? A Perspective from Intervention Research
Barnes, M. A. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12371 · Cited by 10
Executive function profiles of kindergarteners and first graders at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders
Cumming, M. M., Poling, D. V., Qiu, Y., Prykanowski, D. A., Lumpkins, A., Daunic, A. P., Corbett, N., & Smith, S. W. (2023) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/00144029221135573 · Cited by 7
“For instance, we did not include any academic measures in our model that investigators should consider, given the established link between EF and academics (Spiegel et al., 2021).”
Background
Daily breath-based mindfulness exercises in a randomized controlled trial improve primary school children’s performance in arithmetic
Voltmer, K., Hondrich, F., & von Salisch, M. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-49354-0 · Cited by 7
“Children’s Working Memory Updating (WMU) and their families’ socioeconomic status (SES) were controlled because these variables are known to influence children’s mathematics performance 30,31 .”
Background
Cognitive characteristics of children with high mathematics achievement before they start formal schooling
Bakker, M., Torbeyns, J., Verschaffel, L., & Smedt, B. D. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14140 · Cited by 8
Effects of physical activity on executive function in children and adolescents: A Bayesian dose-response network meta-analysis
Li, J., Huang, Z., Feng, X., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2025.102016 · Cited by 10
Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: Disentangling the indirect role of executive functions and intelligence
Yangüez, M., Raine, L. B., Chanal, J. P., Bavelier, D., & Hillman, C. H. (2023) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102514 · Cited by 9
The relevance of top-down self-regulation for children's and adolescents' developmental outcomes
Eisenberg, N., Hernández, M. M., Zuffianò, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2024) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101847 · Cited by 10

Authors: Spiegel, J. A., Goodrich, J. M., Morris, B. M., Osborne, C. M., & Lonigan, C. J.
Affiliations: Florida International University (US)
University of Nebraska–Lincoln (US)
Florida State University (US)
ORCID: Spiegel, Jamie A.
Morris, Brittany M.
Lonigan, Christopher J.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2021-04
Volume: 147
Issue: 4
Pages: 329-351
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000322
PMC: PMC8238326
OpenAlex: W3173366033
Cited by: 362
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 90 · 2025: 106 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 2
FWCI: 52.12
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P50HD052120)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: executive function, academic performance, elementary school students, working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, reading skills, mathematical ability, speaking skills, cognitive development, intrinsic cognitive load, dual-process theory
MeSH terms: Academic Success, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Mathematics, Memory, Short-Term, Reading, Schools, Students, Executive Function

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Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis.

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