Executive function profiles of kindergarteners and first graders at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders
Abstract
Executive function (EF), a set of neurocognitive processes, is central to students’ emotional and behavioral well-being. Despite students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) being at risk for negative long-term outcomes, there is a paucity of EF research with students at risk for EBD in early elementary school, an important identification and intervention period. Thus, we conducted a cross-sectional latent profile analysis with a sample of 1,154 kindergarteners and first graders identified as at risk for EBD to determine whether unique EF profiles existed and the extent to which profile membership was related to distinct patterns of functioning. Results indicated a theoretically supported, three-profile solution of mildly, moderately, and clinically at-risk EF profiles. Differences between EF profiles were noted such that students with moderately and clinically at-risk EF profiles demonstrated more problematic behaviors, less social competence, and greater language difficulties. We discuss implications for early identification, intervention efforts, and future research.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Cumming et al. identified latent executive function profiles in young children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders.
“More recently, Cumming et al. [15] identified latent executive function profiles in young children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders, reinforcing the relevance of EF profiling in early identification and support.”
From Executive Function Profiles in ADHD and Dyslexia: A Mixed-Method Neurocognitive Analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [15]
EF difficulties can be detected early and may follow diverse developmental trajectories, shaped by both neurobiological and environmental influences.
“Emerging evidence suggests that EF difficulties can be detected early and may follow diverse developmental trajectories, shaped by both neurobiological and environmental influences [15,16].”
From Executive Function Profiles in ADHD and Dyslexia: A Mixed-Method Neurocognitive Analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [15]
Moura et al. reported that children with both ADHD and dyslexia exhibited weaker performance across domains such as working memory, processing speed, and phonological processing.
“For instance, Moura et al. [15,16] reported that children with both ADHD and dyslexia exhibited weaker performance across domains such as working memory, processing speed, and phonological processing—highlighting the complexity and severity of comorbid presentations.”
From Executive Function Profiles in ADHD and Dyslexia: A Mixed-Method Neurocognitive Analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [15]
Cumming [15] identified EF profiles in young children that predicted risk for behavioral and emotional disorders.
“For instance, Cumming [15] identified EF profiles in young children that predicted risk for behavioral and emotional disorders.”
From Executive Function Profiles in ADHD and Dyslexia: A Mixed-Method Neurocognitive Analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [15]
Cites
Estimating the Dimension of a Model
Schwarz, G. (1978) · The Annals of Statistics · doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136 · Cited by 47,033 · see citing works
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798 · see citing works
Cohen, J. (1992) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783 · Cited by 5,870 · see citing works
Akaike, H. (1987) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294359 · Cited by 5,264 · see citing works
A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108 · Cited by 4,885 · see citing works
A Developmental Perspective on Executive Function
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x · Cited by 2,692 · see citing works
Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis
Sclove, S. L. (1987) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294360 · Cited by 2,541 · see citing works
Ten frequently asked questions about latent class analysis.
Nylund-Gibson, K. K., & Choi, A. Y. (2018) · Translational Issues in Psychological Science · doi:10.1037/tps0000176 · Cited by 2,362 · see citing works
Latent class analysis: a guide to best practice
Weller, B. E., Bowen, N. K., & Faubert, S. J. (2020) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798420930932 · Cited by 2,223 · see citing works
Nigg, J. T. (2017) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12675 · Cited by 1,518 · see citing works
Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: one-step versus three-step estimators
Bolck, A., Croon, M., & Hagenaars, J. (2004) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mph001 · Cited by 1,406 · see citing works
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12001 · Cited by 1,381 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Studies have found weak relationships between performance-based assessments and EF ratings scales (see Toplak et al., 2013, for a review), with scholars concluding these likely assess different underlying constructs, such that performance-based tasks tend to capture “cool” cognitive EF (e.g.,…”
BackgroundCharacteristics of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders of Children and Youth
Kauffman, J. M. (2012) · Cited by 1,082 · see citing works
Latent Class Analysis: An Alternative Perspective on Subgroup Analysis in Prevention and Treatment
Lanza, S. T., & Rhoades, B. L. (2013) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-011-0201-1 · Cited by 1,031 · see citing works
Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x15584327 · Cited by 993 · see citing works
Ponitz, C. C., McClelland, M. M., Matthews, J. S., & Morrison, F. J. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015365 · Cited by 934 · see citing works
Predictors of early growth in academic achievement: the head-toes-knees-shoulders task
McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Duncan, R., Bowles, R. P., Acock, A. C., Miao, A., & Pratt, M. E. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00599 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Bertrand, M., & Pan, J. (2011) · American Economic Journal Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.5.1.32 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Nylund-Gibson, K. K., Grimm, R. P., & Masyn, K. E. (2019) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2019.1590146 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Considerations for evaluating universal screening assessments
Glover, T. A., & Albers, C. A. (2006) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2006.05.005 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Neuropsychological measures of executive function and antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis.
OGILVIE, J. M., STEWART, A. L., CHAN, R. C. K., & SHUM, D. H. K. (2011) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00252.x · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Executive Function and Psychopathology: A Neurodevelopmental Perspective
Zelazo, P. D. (2020) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072319-024242 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Zelazo, P. D., & Lyons, K. E. (2012) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00241.x · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Yew, S. G. K., & O’Kearney, R. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12009 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fourth Edition (CELF-4)
Paslawski, T. (2005) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/0829573506295465 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Parental Behaviours Predicting Early Childhood Executive Functions: a Meta-Analysis
Valcan, D. S., Davis, H. L., & Pino‐Pasternak, D. (2017) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-017-9411-9 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Spiegel, J. A., Goodrich, J. M., Morris, B. M., Osborne, C. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2021) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000322 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Executive Functions in Preschool Children with Externalizing Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis
Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Deković, M., & Matthys, W. (2012) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9684-x · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Bradley, R., Doolittle, J., & Bartolotta, R. J. (2008) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-007-9058-6 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Takacs, Z. K., & Kassai, R. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000195 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Tominey, S. L., & McClelland, M. M. (2011) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2011.574258 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD)
Walker, H. M., Severson, H. H., Todis, B. J., Block-Pedego, A. E., Williams, G. J., Haring, N. G., & Barckley, M. (1990) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/074193259001100206 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Jamshidian, M., Jalal, S., & Jansen, C. S. (2014) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v056.i06 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Forness, S. R., Freeman, S. F. N., Paparella, T., Kauffman, J. M., & Walker, H. M. (2011) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/1063426611401624 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Executive Function: Implications for Education. NCER 2017-2000.
Zelazo, P. D., Blair, C., & Willoughby, M. T. (2016) · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Jamshardian, M., & Jalal, S. (2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 222 · see citing works
A Preliminary Investigation of Emotional and Behavioral Screening Practices in K–12 Schools
Bruhn, A. L., Woods‐Groves, S., & Huddle, S. M. (2014) · Education and Treatment of Children · doi:10.1353/etc.2014.0039 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Rimm‐Kaufman, S. E., & Chiu, Y. I. (2007) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20231 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Morin, A. J. S., Boudrias, J., Marsh, H. W., Madore, I., & Desrumaux, P. (2016) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2015.1116077 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Working memory and social functioning in children
McQuade, J. D., Murray-Close, D. K., Shoulberg, E. K., & Hoza, B. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.03.002 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Kaushanskaya, M., Park, J. S., Gangopadhyay, I., Davidson, M. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2017) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2016_jslhr-l-15-0310 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Poland, S. E., Monks, C. P., & Tsermentseli, S. K. (2015) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12122 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Kertz, S. J., Belden, A. C., Tillman, R., & Luby, J. L. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0101-0 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Fuhs, M. W., Farran, D. C., & Nesbitt, K. T. (2014) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037366 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Tseng, W., & Gau, S. S. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12072 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Sasser, T. R., Bierman, K. L., Heinrichs, B., & Nix, R. L. (2017) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797617711640 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of the Empirical Support for Check-In Check-Out
Wolfe, K., Pyle, D., Charlton, C. T., Sabey, C. V., Lund, E. M., & Ross, S. W. (2015) · Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions · doi:10.1177/1098300715595957 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Contribution of Rating Scales to Intervention for Executive Dysfunction
Isquith, P. Κ., Roth, R. M., Kenworthy, L. E., & Gioia, G. A. (2014) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2013.870014 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Preschool Executive Control and Internalizing Symptoms in Elementary School
Nelson, T. D., Kidwell, K. M., Nelson, J. M., Tomaso, C. C., Hankey, M., & Espy, K. A. (2018) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0395-1 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Gonzales, C. R., Bowles, R. P., Geldhof, G. J., Cameron, C. E., Tracy, A., & McClelland, M. M. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.03.008 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Cumming, M. M., Bettini, E. A., Pham, A. V., & Park, J. (2019) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654319891400 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationDaunic, A. P., Corbett, N., Smith, S. W., Algina, J. J., Poling, D. V., Worth, M. R., Boss, D., Crews, E., & Vezzoli, J. (2021) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2021.03.004 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationEarly childhood working memory forecasts high school dropout risk
Fitzpatrick, C., Archambault, I., Janosz, M., & Pagani, L. S. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.10.002 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Gage, N. A. (2013) · Education and Treatment of Children · doi:10.1353/etc.2013.0038 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Mattison, R. E., Hooper, S. R., & Carlson, G. A. (2006) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/019874290603100205 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Advising on research methods: selected topics 2011
Adèr, H. J., & Mellenbergh, G. J. (2011) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Cumming, M. M., Smith, S. W., & O’Brien, K. M. (2019) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22293 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationSameroff, A. J. (2020) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-061520-120738 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Litkowski, E. C., Finders, J. K., Borriello, G. A., Purpura, D. J., & Schmitt, S. A. (2020) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101846 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Profiles of Language and Behavior in Students With Emotional Disturbance
Hollo, A., Chow, J. C., & Wehby, J. H. (2018) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/0198742918804803 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Cumming, M. M., Poling, D. V., Patwardhan, I., & Ozenbaugh, I. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.01.008 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationKing, K. R., Gonzales, C. R., & Reinke, W. M. (2018) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/1063426617754082 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Chen, C., Farmer, T. W., Hamm, J. V., Brooks, D. S., Lee, D. L., Norwalk, K. E., Lambert, K., Dawes, M., Sterrett, B. I., & Rizzo, K. L. (2019) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/1063426619866829 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The Development, Prevention, and Treatment of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Farmer, T. W., Gatzke‐Kopp, L. M., & Latendresse, S. J. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429453106-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Farmer, T. W., Bierman, K. L., Hall, C. M., Brooks, D. S., & Lee, D. L. (2021) · Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/1063426620957651 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Cumming, M. M., Poling, D. V., & Smith, S. W. (2020) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191119897119 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Bal, M., Aydemir, A. G. K., Cengiz, G. Ş. T., & Altındağ, A. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0314540 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Cumming, M. M., Oblath, R., Qiu, Y., Frazier, S. L., Zelazo, P. D., Flores, H., & Park, J. (2023) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325231176762 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationBettini, E. A., Cumming, M. M., Lauterbach, A. A., & Mathews, H. M. (2024) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325241237267 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationCumming, M. M., Qiu, Y., Oblath, R., Frazier, S. L., Criado, C., Theodore, S., & Placido, G. (2024) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325241265973
Self-citationCumming, M. M., Poling, D. V., Qiu, Y., Schreiner, N., Jones, B., Daunic, A. P., Corbett, N., & Smith, S. W. (2025) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/00144029251381300
Self-citationBADS-C: Assessment of Executive Function in Children with ADHD
靖, 雪. (2025) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2025.1511581
McClelland, M. M., Kenny, S. A., Didrichsen, S., Herrera, P. N., Halliday, S. E., Ahmadi, A., & Cameron, C. E. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801156
Executive Function Profiles in ADHD and Dyslexia: A Mixed-Method Neurocognitive Analysis
Cucu Ciuhan, G. (2026) · Neurology International · doi:10.3390/neurolint18060110
- Authors
- Cumming, M. M., Poling, D. V., Qiu, Y., Prykanowski, D. A., Lumpkins, A., Daunic, A. P., Corbett, N., & Smith, S. W.
- Affiliations
- Florida International University (US)
- Appalachian State University (US)
- University of Florida (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cumming, Michelle M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Exceptional Children
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2022-11-13
- Volume
- 89
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 294-313
- ISSN
- 0014-4029 (ISSN-L)
- 2163-5560
- OpenAlex
- W4309011027
- Cited by
- 7
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 1.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Exceptional Children (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute of Education Sciences (R324A160136)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Keywords
- executive function, emotional and behavioral disorders, at-risk students, early elementary education, latent profile analysis, social competence, language difficulties, early detection, early intervention, problematic behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
