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What breeds conspiracy antisemitism? The role of political uncontrollability and uncertainty in the belief in Jewish conspiracy
Abstract
Belief in conspiracy theories about Jews is a prototypical example of how a naïve theory can serve as a universal explanation of "all the bad things happening in society." Such a theory often arises in times of political unrest that tend to breed feelings of uncertainty in politics and a lack of control over politics. As both uncertainty (a sense-making deficit) and lack of control (an agency deficit) can relate to conspiracy-based antisemitism, this research examines which of the two processes plays a pivotal role in the belief in Jewish conspiracy. Specifically, we hypothesize that political uncontrollability, rather than political uncertainty, is a critical factor in triggering conspiracy theories about groups. In Study 1 (N = 812) we found that lack of control, but not uncertainty, in the political domain predicted belief in Jewish conspiracy, and subsequently led to increased discriminatory attitudes toward Jews. The results of longitudinal Study 2 (N = 476) revealed that only political uncontrollability led to an increase in conspiracy-related stereotypes of Jews. In Study 3 (N = 172) we found that experimental induction of political uncontrollability increased belief in Jewish, German, and Russian conspiracy, whereas induction of political uncertainty did not. Finally, Study 4 (N = 370) replicated this pattern in another cultural context with more general measures of uncontrollability and uncertainty. It was lack of personal control, rather than uncertainty, that increased belief in Jewish conspiracy-and indirectly predicted other conspiracy theories. Our findings consistently support the critical role of political uncontrollability, not uncertainty, in triggering a conspiracy theory of Jews. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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“Jewish conspiracy theory beliefs are related to prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people [25][26][27][28] and several other outgroups [29**].”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
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“…that uncertainty may lead to increased belief in conspiracies (van Prooijen & Jostmann, 2013; Whitson et al., 2015), there is a much broader swathe of empirical support that lacking control drives investment in conspiracy beliefs (Kofta et al., 2020; Landau et al., 2015; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008).”
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BackgroundHow social identity shapes conspiratorial belief
Robertson, C. E., Pretus, C., Rathje, S., Harris, E. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101423 · Cited by 57
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“In conditions of uncertainty, people are generally more likely to endorse conspiracy theories (Kofta et al., 2020; Whitson et al., 2015), again suggesting that conspiracy thinking might be motivated by negative experiences linked to loss of control or uncertainty (Bilewicz & Sedek, 2015).”
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Douglas, K. M., Azevedo, F., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rxjqc · Cited by 55
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“This added to a recent line of research focusing on how social factors such as corruption (Alper, 2021), inequality (Casara et al., 2022), precarity (Adam-Troian et al., 2021), and political control (Kofta et al., 2020) feed conspiracy beliefs.”
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Is democracy under threat? Why belief in conspiracy theories predicts autocratic attitudes
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“…dealt with general CTBs or COVID-19 CTBs (Giacomantonio et al., 2022), climate change CTBs (Biddlestone et al., 2022), and CTBs related to Jewes or other social groups (Kofta et al., 2020), research that has focused on LGBTQ+ CTBs is very scarce (Bettinsoli et al., 2022; Salvati et al., 2023a, b).”
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“…indicates that specific conspiracy theories can also evoke intergroup prejudice and discrimination against minority groups (Bilewicz et al., 2013; Kofta et al., 2020; Obaidi et al., 2022), as arguably occurred with COVID–19 conspiracy theories during the outbreak of the pandemic (e.g., Moonshot,…”
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BackgroundEngaging with Conspiracy Believers
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“While studies suggest that beliefs in conspiracy theories are likely driven by “epistemic motives” to alleviate the uncertainty (Gligorić et al., 2021), the evidence of the direct relationship between uncertainty and conspiracy beliefs is mixed (Kofta et al., 2020; Van Prooijen & Jostmann, 2013).”
BackgroundMaking Sense of Jiese: An Interview Study of Members from a Porn-Free Self-Help Forum in China
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“Notably, the sentiments of anxieties mentioned previously and the conspiracy theory were simultaneously presented in participants’ narratives, echoing previous research that jieyou’s conspiracy belief was closely connected with the feelings of powerlessness (Goertzel, 1994) and lack of control (Kofta et al., 2020).”
ResultMa, X., & Liao, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.791850 · Cited by 12
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Thomas, E. F., O'Donnell, A. W., Osborne, D., Bird, L. H., Yip, L., Buonaiuto, E., Lizzio‐Wilson, M., Skitka, L. J., & Wenzel, M. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13075 · Cited by 9
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Rao, T., Yang, S., & Zhu, X. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19020932 · Cited by 9
“Especially in the context of uncertainty, need for structure can be regarded as the psychological basis of many psychological and behavioral factors, such as conspiracy theory thinking [49] and stereotyping [23].”
BackgroundPolitical affiliation moderates subjective interpretations of COVID-19 graphs
Ericson, J. D., Albert, W., & Duane, J.-N. (2022) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517221080678 · Cited by 9
“…if their way of life is being threatened (Blumenthal-Barby and Burroughs, 2012), which can lead to selfish or panicked behavior (O’Keefe and Reid, 1990), self-isolation (Graeupner and Coman, 2017), prejudices (Kofta et al., 2020), or blaming others for negative outcomes (Douglas et al., 2017).”
BackgroundI need some answers, now!: Present time perspective is associated with holding conspiracy beliefs
Zajenkowski, M., Górniak, J., Wojnarowski, K., Sobol, M., & Jonason, P. K. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111723 · Cited by 11
“Moreover, they share several common correlates like perceived powerlessness (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999; Parsons et al., 1999), lack of control (Kofta et al., 2020; Leiser et al., 2017), uncertainty (Hollander, 2018; Van Prooijen & Jostmann, 2013), religious fundamentalism (Boguszewski et al.,…”
BackgroundOf Precarity and Conspiracy: Introducing A Socio-Functional Model of Conspiracy BeliefsPreprint
Adam‐Troian, J., Chayinska, M., Paladino, M. P., Uluğ, Ö. M., Vaes, J., & Wagner‐Egger, P. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mnfrd · Cited by 9
Alper, S., Toribio‐Flórez, D., Capraro, V., & Douglas, K. M. (2024) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506241302878 · Cited by 9
“The higher-order social factors that undermine trust, such as corruption (Alper, 2023), inequality (Casara et al., 2022), and lack of political control (Kofta et al., 2020) are also associated with stronger conspiracy beliefs.”
Online Misinformation and “Phantom Patterns”: Epistemic Exploitation in the Era of Big Data
Fritts, M., & Cabrera, F. (2021) · The Southern Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1111/sjp.12451 · Cited by 8
Conspiracy Theories about Infectious Diseases: An Introduction
Hong, Y., Chan, H., & Douglas, K. M. (2021) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909211057657 · Cited by 9
“Research studies have revealed that feelings of anxiety, powerlessness, and lack of sociopolitical control are related to stronger conspiracy beliefs (e.g., Bruder et al., 2013; Grzesiak-Feldman, 2013; Kofta et al., 2020).”
BackgroundDeconstructing the Conspiratorial Mind: the Computational Logic Behind Conspiracy Theories
Rigoli, F. (2022) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-022-00657-7 · Cited by 6
“The role of expected consequences postulated by the CMCT offers an interpretation of empirical evidence showing that anxiety and lack of control encourage support of conspiracy theories (Bruder et al. 2013; Douglas et al. 2017; Grzesiak-Feldman 2013; Kofta et al. 2020).”
BackgroundCurious about threats: Morbid curiosity and interest in conspiracy theories in US adults
Scrivner, C., & Stubbersfield, J. (2023) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12682 · Cited by 7
Prolonged unemployment is associated with control loss and personal as well as social disengagement
Soral, W., Bukowski, M., Bilewicz, M., Cichocka, A. K., Lewczuk, K., Marchlewska, M., Rabinovitch, A., Rędzio, A. M., Skrodzka, M., & Kofta, M. (2024) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12967 · Cited by 8
Going beyond simplicity: Using machine learning to predict belief in conspiracy theories
Brandenstein, N. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2859 · Cited by 9
Zein, R. A., Ridlo, I. A., Arinda, M. F., & Rikardi, A. A. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/53qsk · Cited by 8
Youssef, D., Abboud, E., & Bleibel, L. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2020448/v1 · Cited by 7
Hidden in plain sight: antisemitic content in QAnon subreddits
Weinberg, D. B., Levy, M. D., Edwards, A., Kopstein, J. S., Frey, D., Antonaros, P., Baci, N., Cohen, N. D., Fernandez, J. A., & Ni, Y. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0318988 · Cited by 6
Alfasi, Y. (2023) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2023.2286592 · Cited by 5
“Political Uncontrollability was assessed with items from Kofta et al.‘s (2020) study.”
InfluentialHow belief in conspiracy theories could harm sustainability
van Prooijen, J., Šrol, J., & Maglić, M. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02243-0 · Cited by 6
de Zavala, A. G., Bierwiaczonek, K., & Ciesielski, P. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2rku3 · Cited by 6
Content Moderation and Hate Speech on Alternative Platforms: A Case Study of BitChute
Erickson, J., & Yan, B. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3710950 · Cited by 5
“There is a long history of accusing Jews of controlling governments and media [35], and the implementation of what is perceived as a top-down censorship policy may stoke these troubling beliefs.”
Fritsche, I., Lautenbacher, J. M., & Masson, T. (2025) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2025.2509465 · Cited by 8
Youssef, D., Bleibel, L., & Abboud, E. (2023) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Policy and Practice · doi:10.1186/s40545-023-00580-x · Cited by 10
“Epistemic need referred to people’s motivation to maintain certainty, consistency, and accuracy in their understanding of the world [10, 11].”
BackgroundConspiracy and Antisemitism in Contemporary Political Attitudes
Lewis, J. S. (2025) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129251318350 · Cited by 4
“Kofta, Soral, and Bilewicz (2020) fi nd that it is political uncontrollability rather than uncertainty that increases belief in antisemitic conspiracies.”
Conspiracy Theories and Muslim Brotherhood Antisemitism under Sadat
Santing, K. M. (2022) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel13020143 · Cited by 4
Weimar, Hitler und „die Deutschen“ – ein sozialpsychologisches Bedingungssystem
Frey, D., Rez, H., & Hehnen, M. M. (2022) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000556 · Cited by 4
Kay, A. C., & Gibbs, W. C. (2022) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-021-00385-w · Cited by 5
“, 2014), gun policies (Shepherd & Kay, 2018), antisemitism (Kofta et al., 2020), acceptance of Covid-19 interventions (Wnuk et al.”
BackgroundHow perceived coercion polarizes unvaccinated people: The mediating role of conspiracy beliefs
Wang, H., van Prooijen, J., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2024) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053241238126 · Cited by 6
“Such feelings of uncontrollability and lack of power are associated with increased conspiracy beliefs (Kofta et al., 2020; Kossowska and Bukowski, 2015; Van Prooijen and Acker, 2015; Van Prooijen and Van Lange, 2014).”
The social psychology of conspiracy theories: Key insights and future challenges
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2025) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2024.10.004 · Cited by 6
Witte, H. D., Roll, L. C., & Hootegem, A. V. (2021) · Gedrag & Organisatie · doi:10.5117/go2021.3.005.witt · Cited by 4
Conspiracy Theories: A Cultural Evolution Theory approachPreprint
Stubbersfield, J. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/hqkju · Cited by 4
Conspiracy Theories as Opportunistic Attributions of PowerPreprint
Nera, K., Bertin, P., & Klein, O. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rmcj9 · Cited by 4
Dilling, M., Sorrentino, A., Brähler, E., Fegert, J. M., & Decker, O. (2025) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.70009 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Kofta, M., Soral, W., & Bilewicz, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Warsaw (PL)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 118
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 900-918
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W3000531909
- Cited by
- 182
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 14
- FWCI
- 36.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Centre (DEC-2014/15/G/HS6/04589, UMO-2014/15/B/HS6/-03755)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Religion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity
- Keywords
- conspiracy theories, antisemitism, Jewish conspiracy, political uncertainty, political unrest, naive theories
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Jews, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Politics, Prejudice, Uncertainty
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