The DOI matches its Crossref record; 29 of the 29 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Atmospheric oxygenation three billion years ago
Abstract
It is widely assumed that atmospheric oxygen concentrations remained persistently low (less than 10(-5) times present levels) for about the first 2 billion years of Earth's history. The first long-term oxygenation of the atmosphere is thought to have taken place around 2.3 billion years ago, during the Great Oxidation Event. Geochemical indications of transient atmospheric oxygenation, however, date back to 2.6-2.7 billion years ago. Here we examine the distribution of chromium isotopes and redox-sensitive metals in the approximately 3-billion-year-old Nsuze palaeosol and in the near-contemporaneous Ijzermyn iron formation from the Pongola Supergroup, South Africa. We find extensive mobilization of redox-sensitive elements through oxidative weathering. Furthermore, using our data we compute a best minimum estimate for atmospheric oxygen concentrations at that time of 3 × 10(-4) times present levels. Overall, our findings suggest that there were appreciable levels of atmospheric oxygen about 3 billion years ago, more than 600 million years before the Great Oxidation Event and some 300-400 million years earlier than previous indications for Earth surface oxygenation.
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“In particular, chromium (Cr) isotope data for the boring billion suggest pO2 levels of <1% PAL and perhaps as low as 0.1% PAL or less (Crowe et al., 2013; Planavsky et al., 2014)”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Crowe et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“More recent studies, most of which were driven by the emergence of redox-sensitive trace element proxies, suggest a more complex and dynamic evolution scenario for pO2 (7–11).”
From Rapid oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 2.33 billion years ago (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Therefore, a much higher sink of seawater sulfate is required to maintain the very low sulfate levels previously suggested (8, 34, 60).”
From Rapid oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 2.33 billion years ago (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Crowe et al. (2013) found that the δ 53 Cr isotope compositions of 2.96 Ga paleosols were fractionated relative to the crustal values, indicating oxidative mobilization of Cr and the presence of low levels of atmospheric oxygen (~10 -4 PAL; the level required to prevent reduction of Cr[VI] by Fe[II] during transport to the ocean).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Crowe et al., 2013
In the citing paper
“Those same authors also suggested that the peak in Se at ~3.0 Ga in the pyrite record is consistent with Cr and Mo isotope data at that time”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Crowe et al., 2013
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- Crowe, S. A. et al. Oxidative weathering fractionates chromium isotopes. Mineral. Mag. 75, 706 (2011)
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Metadata
- Authors
- Crowe, S. A., Døssing, L. N., Beukes, N. J., Bau, M., Kruger, S. J., Frei, R., & Canfield, D. E.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- University of Johannesburg (ZA)
- Constructor University (DE)
- University of Southern Denmark (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Crowe, Sean A.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2013-09
- Volume
- 501
- Issue
- 7468
- Pages
- 535-538
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2073562922
- Cited by
- 640
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 64 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 39.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Southern Denmark Research Portal (University of Southern Denmark) (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Keywords
- atmospheric oxygenation, Great Oxidation Event, chromium isotopes, redox-sensitive metals, oxidative weathering, Pongola Supergroup, early Earth atmosphere, Precambrian
- MeSH terms
- Cyanobacteria, Atmosphere, Chromium Isotopes, Biological Evolution, Iron, Oxidation-Reduction, Oxygen, Photosynthesis, South Africa, Earth, Planet, Geologic Sediments, History, Ancient
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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