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Cited by 387Paleontology and Stratigraphy of FossilsGeological and Geochemical AnalysisEarth Systems and Cosmic Evolution

Rapid oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 2.33 billion years ago

Open access
Luo, Genming, Ono, Shuhei, Beukes, Nicolas J., Wang, David T., Xie, Shucheng, Summons, Roger E.·2016·Science Advances
DOI 10.1126/sciadv.1600134PMC PMC4928975
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Abstract

Continuous multiple sulfur isotope profiles from South African rocks pinpoint the Great Oxygenation Event in the geologic record.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Continuous multiple sulfur isotope records from three South African drill cores capture the transition from mass-independent to mass-dependent sulfur fractionation in a continuous sedimentary sequence, pinpointing the Great Oxygenation Event. The data constrain the end of the GOE to 2316–2326 Ma and indicate the rise to >10−5 PAL pO2 occurred in less than 10 My, possibly less than 1 My.

Key findings

  • The studied sequence is divided into S-MIF, transitional, and S-MDF intervals: S-MIF pyrite has Δ33S up to +8‰ and Δ36S/Δ33S around −0.98; S-MDF pyrite has |Δ33S| < 0.3‰ and Δ36S/Δ33S near −6.7; the transitional interval has intermediate and variable Δ33S values.
  • The termination of the GOE is constrained to 2316–2326 Ma (±7 My), based on a 2316 ± 7 Ma Re-Os age at the Rooihoogte–Timeball Hill boundary and a ~5 m sediment package; the GOE duration is estimated at <10 My, or <1 My under a faster sedimentation rate.
  • A ~45‰ negative δ34S shift occurs in the lower S-MDF interval, with pyrite δ34S as low as −35‰, suggesting sulfate-unlimited microbial sulfate reduction and a considerable increase in marine sulfate after the GOE; the sulfate rise lagged pO2 by ~6 My in the data and ~10 My in the model, with modeled sulfate rising from ~10 μM to >1 mM.
  • The model suggests pre-GOE seawater sulfate could have been at least 10% and perhaps as much as 30% of modern values if volcanic sulfur dominated inputs, requiring a stronger sulfate sink; decreased pyrite burial under higher pO2 helps explain the delayed sulfate increase.

Methods

  • High-resolution multiple sulfur isotope analyses (δ34S, Δ33S, Δ36S) of diagenetic pyrite from a continuous upper Rooihoogte to lower Timeball Hill sequence in three diamond drill cores (KEA-4, EBA-2, EBA-4), western Transvaal Basin, South Africa; pyrite was extracted by chromium reduction and measured as SF6 by dual-inlet isotope ratio mass spectrometry.
  • Age framework includes a Re-Os isochron of 2316 ± 7 Ma on synsedimentary to early diagenetic pyrite at the Rooihoogte–Timeball Hill boundary in EBA-2, supported by a tuff zircon U-Pb age of 2309 ± 9 Ma and a youngest detrital zircon U-Pb age of 2324 ± 17 Ma.
  • A coupled atmosphere-ocean biogeochemical model of O2, CH4, and sulfur cycles was used, with continental sulfide weathering and volcanic sulfur as seawater sulfate sources and pyrite burial and sulfate burial as sinks, to test the lag between pO2 rise and seawater sulfate increase.

Limitations

  • The paper states there has been no consensus definition of the GOE; this study defines it as the interval when the atmosphere changed from anoxic to sufficient pO2 to prevent S-MIF preservation. It also notes that large Δ33S values may partly reflect sample bias because few suitable formations are known, with data nearly exclusively from the Transvaal Supergroup, Hamersley and Turee Creek groups, and Huronian Supergroup.
  • The paper states that sedimentation-rate assumptions are conservative and uncertain, and that available age constraints from the studied sections do not constrain the duration of the lag between methane collapse and O2 rise; the relative timing of the GOE and the Makganyene glaciation remains uncertain because its age is controversial, and additional high-resolution dating and paleolatitude constraints are required.
  • The text makes evident that conclusions depend on the nominal S-MIF threshold of <10−5 PAL and on model parameterizations, including pyrite burial coupled to pO2 and simplified treatment of sulfur species, so pO2 and sulfate estimates are proxy- and model-dependent.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1126/sciadv.1600134

Cites

79 of 79 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 79 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Both the pyrite in bulk rock and that drilled from layered or granular pyrite show similar sulfur isotopic compositions.

    “Both the pyrite in bulk rock and that drilled from layered or granular pyrite show similar sulfur isotopic compositions (see Materials and Methods, Fig. 2, and table S1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    A detrital origin for the pyrite is not feasible on the basis of hydraulic equivalence because the density of pyrite is higher than that of other minerals.

    “A detrital origin for the pyrite is not feasible on the basis of hydraulic equivalence because the density of pyrite is higher than that of other minerals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    These data are significantly larger than published data in the interval between ~2.5 and ~2.3 Ga that are commonly located in the range of −1 to 3‰.

    “These data are significantly larger than published data in the interval between ~2.5 and ~2.3 Ga that are commonly located in the range of −1 to 3‰ (25, 27).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25] Farquhar J., Wing B. A., Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of the atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 1– 13 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27] Johnston D. T., Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of Earth’s surface sulfur cycle. Earth Sci. Rev. 106, 161– 183 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    The Δ33S values of pyrite in the S-MIF interval (up to +8‰) are among the highest values in the entire geologic record.

    “The Δ33S values of pyrite in the S-MIF interval (up to +8‰) are among the highest values in the entire geologic record [for example, Johnston (27)].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Johnston D. T., Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of Earth’s surface sulfur cycle. Earth Sci. Rev. 106, 161– 183 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    The sizes of the pyrite grains are much larger than coexisting terrestrial particles, mainly quartz and clay minerals.

    “First, the sizes of the pyrite grains are much larger than coexisting terrestrial particles, mainly comprising quartz and clay minerals (fig. S2, A to I).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 24
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In the S-MDF interval, all pyrite is characterized by near-zero Δ33S values (|Δ33S| < 0.3‰) and Δ36S/Δ33S ratios close to the theoretical MDF value (approximately −6.7).

    “In contrast, in the S-MDF interval (above the pink band in Fig. 2), all pyrite is characterized by near-zero Δ33S values (|Δ33S| < 0.3‰) and Δ36S/Δ33S ratios close to the theoretical MDF value (approximately –6.7) (44).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Ono S., Wing B., Johnston D., Farquhar J., Rumble D., Mass-dependent fractionation of quadruple stable sulfur isotope system as a new tracer of sulfur biogeochemical cycles. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70, 2238– 2252 (2006). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Pyrite morphology and size do not change across the rock sequence studied.

    “Furthermore, pyrite morphology and size do not change across the rock sequence studied here (fig. S2, A to C versus D to I).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Pyrite in the S-MIF interval carries distinct S-MIF signals, with Δ33S reaching as high as +8‰ and Δ36S/Δ33S ratios centering around −0.98, characteristic of the Neoarchean array.

    “The pyrite in the S-MIF interval (below the pink band in Fig. 2) carries distinct S-MIF signals, with Δ33S reaching as high as +8‰ and the Δ36S/Δ33S ratios centering around −0.98, which is characteristic of the Neoarchean array (Fig. 3) (30, 43).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [30] Ono S., Eigenbrode J. L., Pavlov A. A., Kharecha P., Rumble D. III, Kasting J. F., Freeman K. H., New insights into Archean sulfur cycle from mass-independent sulfur isotope records from the Hamersley Basin, Australia. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 15– 30 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] Kaufman A. J., Johnston D. T., Farquhar J., Masterson A., Lyons T. W., Bates S., Anbar A. D., Arnold G. L., Garvin J., Buick R., Late Archean biospheric oxygenation and atmospheric evolution. Science 317, 1900– 1903 (2007). 17901329 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Some pyrite grains distinctly disturb sedimentary laminae, suggesting that the crystals grew in place before compaction and are early diagenetic in origin.

    “Third, some pyrite grains distinctly disturb sedimentary laminae (fig. S2, B to E and G to I), suggesting that the crystals grew in place before compaction and, therefore, are early diagenetic in origin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    The sequence in the three cores is divided into three intervals, S-MIF, transitional, and S-MDF, based on Δ33S time series variation and Δ36S relationships.

    “On the basis of the time series variation trends of Δ33S and the relationships between Δ33S and Δ36S values (see Materials and Methods for the definition of Δ36S), we have divided the sequence in the three cores into three intervals, termed S-MIF, transitional, and S-MDF (Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The new data fill the previous gap in data and pinpoint the transition from S-MIF to S-MDF, or the GOE, as being present in a sedimentary rock sequence with compelling indications for continuous deposition.

    “Therefore, these new data fill the previous gap in data and pinpoint the transition from S-MIF to S-MDF or the GOE as being present in a sedimentary rock sequence with compelling indications for continuous deposition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The transitional interval contains pyrite with both small (|Δ33S| < 0.5‰ in the lower part) and large (0.5 to 2.0‰ in the upper part) Δ33S values and a Δ36S/Δ33S slope higher than both the underlying S-MIF interval and the overlying S-MDF interval.

    “The intervening transitional interval (the pink band in Fig. 2) contains pyrite with both small (|Δ33S| < 0.5‰ in the lower part) and large (0.5 to 2.0‰ in the upper part) Δ33S values and a Δ36S/Δ33S slope that is higher (less negative) than both the underlying S-MIF interval and the overlying S-MDF interval.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The negative shift in δ34S values occurred above the disappearance of S-MIF in all three cores by ~3 m of strata, representing as much as ~6 My in time on the basis of the sedimentation rate assumed above.

    “The negative shift in δ34S values occurred above the disappearance of S-MIF in all three cores by ~3 m of strata (Fig. 2), representing as much as ~6 My in time on the basis of the sedimentation rate assumed above.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: A conservative sedimentation rate can be assumed on the basis of previously reported sedimentation rates in slightly older parts of the same basin.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The model reproduces the rapid rise of oxygen and predicts a time lag of ~10 My between the increase in pO2 and the subsequent rise in sulfate from ~10 μM to >1 mM.

    “Our model both reproduces the rapid rise of oxygen (53, 54) (consistent with the rapid disappearance of S-MIF in the cores we analyzed here) and predicts a time lag of ~10 My between the increase in pO2 and the subsequent rise in sulfate from ~10 μM to >1 mM (Fig. 4); this is comparable to the lag in isotope signals estimated above.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [53] Claire M. W., Catling D. C., Zahnle K. J., Biogeochemical modelling of the rise in atmospheric oxygen. Geobiology 4, 239– 269 (2006). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [54] Goldblatt C., Lenton T. M., Watson A. J., Bistability of atmospheric oxygen and the great oxidation. Nature 443, 683– 686 (2006). 17036001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sulfide weathering was coupled to pO2.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Volcanic sulfur fluxes were scaled to the outgassing rate of reducing gases.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sulfate burial is proportional to seawater sulfate content.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Pyrite burial is governed by microbial sulfate reduction dependent on sulfate content and on pO2.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The value of θ determines the steady state [S] for the model pre- and post-GOE oceans but does not significantly affect the time scale of the rise of sulfate levels.

    “The value of θ determines the steady state [S] for the model pre- and post-GOE oceans but does not significantly affect the time scale of the rise of sulfate levels (fig. S5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Aerobic respiration follows Monod kinetics.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Pyrite burial depends on [S] and [O] with Monod-type dependence on [S].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Organic carbon burial is independent of [O].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The concentration of organic carbon is at steady state.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Oxidative weathering of organics and pyrite follows a power function and Monod kinetics with respect to [O].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Hydrogen escape to space is first order with respect to [M].
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The source of O2 in the model atmosphere-ocean system is oxygenic photosynthesis.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Great Oxygenation Event was first identified by the disappearance of oxygen-sensitive detrital minerals such as pyrite, uraninite, and siderite from sedimentary rocks together with the widespread appearance of Fe-rich paleosols.

    “The initial episode of demonstrable pO2 increase is generally termed the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) and was first identified by the disappearance of oxygen-sensitive detrital minerals such as pyrite, uraninite, and siderite from sedimentary rocks together with the widespread appearance of Fe-rich paleosols in geological sequences (3, 13).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Holland H. D., The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 361, 903– 915 (2006). 16754606 PMC1578726 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [13] H. D. Holland, The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere and Ocean (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1984).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The rise of atmospheric O2 partial pressure is proposed to have occurred in two main episodes, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the Proterozoic Eon.

    “The rise of the atmospheric O2 partial pressure (pO2) is proposed to have occurred in two main episodes, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the Proterozoic Eon (3, 5, 6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] Holland H. D., The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 361, 903– 915 (2006). 16754606 PMC1578726 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Canfield D. E., The early history of atmospheric oxygen: Homage to Robert M. Garrels. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 33, 1– 36 (2005). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6] Kump L. R., The rise of atmospheric oxygen. Nature 451, 277– 278 (2008). 18202642 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    More recent studies suggest a more complex and dynamic evolution scenario for pO2.

    “More recent studies, most of which were driven by the emergence of redox-sensitive trace element proxies, suggest a more complex and dynamic evolution scenario for pO2 (7–11).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [7] Anbar A. D., Duan Y., Lyons T. W., Arnold G. L., Kendall B., Creaser R. A., Kaufman A. J., Gordon G. W., Scott C., Garvin J., Buick R., A whiff of oxygen before the Great Oxidation Event? Science 317, 1903– 1906 (2007). 17901330 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] Crowe S. A., Døssing L. N., Beukes N. J., Bau M., Kruger S. J., Frei R., Canfield D. E., Atmospheric oxygenation three billion years ago. Nature 501, 535– 539 (2013). 24067713 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] Kurzweil F., Claire M., Thomazo C., Peters M., Hannington M., Strauss H., Atmospheric sulfur rearrangement 2.7 billion years ago: Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 366, 17– 26 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [10] Lyons T. W., Reinhard C. T., Planavsky N. J., The rise of oxygen in Earth’s early ocean and atmosphere. Nature 506, 307– 315 (2014). 24553238 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] Planavsky N. J., Reinhard C. T., Wang X., Thomson D., McGoldrick P., Rainbird R. H., Johnson T., Fischer W. W., Lyons T. W., Low mid-proterozoic atmospheric oxygen levels and the delayed rise of animals. Science 346, 635– 638 (2014). 25359975 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The 2316 ± 7 Ma age is supported by a tuff zircon U-Pb age of 2309 ± 9 My for the lowermost Timeball Hill Formation and the youngest detrital zircon U-Pb age of 2324 ± 17 My for the Timeball Hill Formation.

    “This is supported by a tuff zircon U-Pb age of 2309 ± 9 My for the lowermost Timeball Hill Formation in the nearby UD49 core (41) and the youngest detrital zircon U-Pb age of 2324 ± 17 My for the Timeball Hill Formation (42) (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [41] Rasmussen B., Bekker A., Fletcher I. R., Correlation of Paleoproterozoic glaciations based on U–Pb zircon ages for tuff beds in the Transvaal and Huronian Supergroups. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 382, 173– 180 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] H. C. Dorland, Provenance ages and timing of sedimentation of selected Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic successions on the Kaapvaal craton, thesis, Rand Afrikaans University (2004).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The authors accept ~10−5 PAL as the nominal threshold above which S-MIF is no longer preserved and apply it as a robust tool for tracing the first rise in pO2 to >10−5 PAL.

    “By accepting the original value of ~10−5 PAL as the nominal threshold above which S-MIF is no longer preserved, we apply it here as a robust tool for tracing the first rise in pO2 to >10−5 PAL because of its potential for high stratigraphic resolution (1, 31, 33).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] Farquhar J., Bao H., Thiemens M., Atmospheric influence of earth’s earliest sulfur cycle. Science 289, 756– 758 (2000). 10926533 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [31] Pavlov A. A., Kasting J. F., Mass-independent fractionation of sulfur isotopes in Archean sediments: Strong evidence for an anoxic Archean atmosphere. Astrobiology 2, 27– 41 (2004). 12449853 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Farquhar J., Johnston D. T., Wing B. A., Habicht K. S., Canfield D. E., Airieau S., Thiemens M. H., Multiple sulphur isotopic interpretations of biosynthetic pathways: Implications for biological signatures in the sulphur isotope record. Geobiology 1, 27– 36 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The decrease in Δ33S values in the transitional interval was caused by an increase of pO2, which weakened the preservation of Δ33S signals from photochemistry through mixing different atmospheric sulfur pools, but this homogenization was incomplete.

    “we suggest that the decrease in Δ33S values in the transitional interval was caused by an increase of pO2, which weakened the preservation of Δ33S signals from photochemistry through mixing different atmospheric sulfur pools; however, this homogenization was incomplete (9, 25).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [9] Kurzweil F., Claire M., Thomazo C., Peters M., Hannington M., Strauss H., Atmospheric sulfur rearrangement 2.7 billion years ago: Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 366, 17– 26 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Farquhar J., Wing B. A., Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of the atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 1– 13 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The change in atmospheric composition in the transitional interval was the prelude to the substantial increase in pO2, representing the GOE as defined.

    “Therefore, we hypothesize that this change in atmospheric composition was the prelude to the substantial increase in pO2, representing the GOE as defined above.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The near-zero Δ33S values and mass-dependent Δ36S/Δ33S signature slope in the S-MDF interval indicate that mass-independent fractionation did not take place or was not preservable during deposition of the uppermost part of the Rooihoogte and lower Timeball Hill formations.

    “The near-zero Δ33S values and mass-dependent Δ36S/Δ33S signature slope (approximately −6.7) in the S-MDF interval indicate that mass-independent fractionation did not take place or was not preservable during the deposition of the uppermost part of the Rooihoogte and lower Timeball Hill formations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A significant increase in marine sulfate levels in this interval, widespread hematite-rich oolitic ironstone, and high enrichment of chromium in the middle part of the Timeball Hill Formation all suggest that a substantial rise in pO2 was at play.

    “A significant increase in marine sulfate levels in this interval (see below), widespread hematite-rich oolitic ironstone, and a high enrichment of chromium in the middle part of the Timeball Hill Formation (16, 47) all suggest that a substantial rise in pO2 was at play.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] Konhauser K. O., Lalonde S. V., Planavsky N. J., Pecoits E., Lyons T. W., Mojzsis S. J., Rouxel O., Barley M. E., Rosìere C., Fralick P. W., Kump L. R., Bekker A., Aerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event. Nature 478, 369– 374 (2011). 22012395 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [47] N. J. Beukes, H. C. Dorland, J. Gutzmer, paper presented at the Geological Society of America, Denver, CO, 2002.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The observed time lag and opposite sequence of events suggest that other factors, not only changes in sources (for example, sulfide weathering), contributed to the expansion of the oceanic sulfate reservoir, possibly including variation in the sinks of the seawater sulfate.

    “The observed time lag and opposite sequence of events suggest that other factors, not only the changes in sources (for example, sulfide weathering), contributed to the expansion of the oceanic sulfate reservoir, possibly including variation in the sinks of the seawater sulfate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Δ36S/Δ33S slope of −0.9 is widespread in Neoarchean sedimentary rocks and interpreted to be of atmospheric origin.

    “This is also supported by the Δ36S/Δ33S slope of −0.9, which is widespread in Neoarchean sedimentary rocks and interpreted to be of atmospheric origin (9, 25, 30, 43).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [9] Kurzweil F., Claire M., Thomazo C., Peters M., Hannington M., Strauss H., Atmospheric sulfur rearrangement 2.7 billion years ago: Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 366, 17– 26 (2013). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] Farquhar J., Wing B. A., Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of the atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 1– 13 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] Ono S., Eigenbrode J. L., Pavlov A. A., Kharecha P., Rumble D. III, Kasting J. F., Freeman K. H., New insights into Archean sulfur cycle from mass-independent sulfur isotope records from the Hamersley Basin, Australia. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 15– 30 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [43] Kaufman A. J., Johnston D. T., Farquhar J., Masterson A., Lyons T. W., Bates S., Anbar A. D., Arnold G. L., Garvin J., Buick R., Late Archean biospheric oxygenation and atmospheric evolution. Science 317, 1900– 1903 (2007). 17901329 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Neither the models nor available age constraints from the studied sections provide information on the duration of the lag between the two postulated events.

    “However, neither these models nor available age constraints from the sections we studied provide any information on the duration of the lag between these two postulated events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The rise of pO2 would consume CH4 through photochemical reactions, so any atmospheric CH4 would have been lost during the GOE.

    “Because the rise of pO2 would consume CH4 through a series of photochemical reactions, any atmospheric CH4 would have been lost during the GOE.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The age of the Makganyene diamictite is controversial; it could be older than 2.3 Ga according to Pb-Pb ages of the Mooidraai dolomite and detrital zircons, or younger than 2.3 Ga according to the Pb-Pb age of the Ongeluk lava.

    “In particular, the age of the Makganyene diamictite is controversial”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [66] Bau M., Romer R. L., Lüders V., Beukes N. J., Pb, O, and C isotopes in silicified Mooidraai dolomite (Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa): Implications for the composition of Paleoproterozoic seawater and ‘dating’ the increase of oxygen in the Precambrian atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 174, 43– 57 (1999). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [67] Moore J. M., Polteau S., Armstrong R. A., Corfu F., Tsikos H., The age and correlation of the Postmasburg Group, southern Africa: Constraints from detrital zircon grains. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 64, 9– 19 (2012). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [68] Cornell D. H., Schütte S. S., Eglington B. L., The Ongeluk basaltic andesite formation in Griqualand West, South Africa: Submarine alteration in a 2222 Ma proterozoic sea. Precambrian Res. 79, 101– 123 (1996). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The diamictite layer in core EBA-4 suggests that glaciation predated the GOE, though of unknown magnitude and latitude.

    “suggesting that glaciation (though of unknown magnitude and at unknown latitude) predated the GOE.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These chronological uncertainties mean the Makganyene may be older, younger, or contemporaneous with the sections studied in our cores.

    “These large chronological uncertainties mean that the Makganyene may be older, younger, or contemporaneous with the sections studied in our cores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The relative timing of the GOE and the Snowball Earth glaciation represented by the Makganyene diamictite remains uncertain.

    “In addition, the relative timing of the GOE and the Snowball Earth glaciation represented by the Makganyene diamictite in the Griqualand West Basin in South Africa (56) also remains uncertain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Kopp R. E., Kirschvink J. L., Hiburn I. A., Nash C. Z., The Paleoproterozoic snowball earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 11131– 11136 (2005). 16061801 PMC1183582 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    FVR is the flux of reductants from volcanic gas (mostly H2) and decreases with time.

    “FVR is the flux of reductants from volcanic gas (mostly H2) and decreases with time (53).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] Claire M. W., Catling D. C., Zahnle K. J., Biogeochemical modelling of the rise in atmospheric oxygen. Geobiology 4, 239– 269 (2006). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because aerobic respiration is limited in the pre-GOE oceans, sulfate reducers are expected to have access to more labile organics compared to post-GOE oceans.

    “Because aerobic respiration is limited in the pre-GOE oceans, sulfate reducers are expected to have access to more labile organics compared to post-GOE oceans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    For simplicity, the model did not explicitly model different kinetics for different forms of sulfur that are likely present in the Archean oceans.

    “For simplicity, we did not explicitly model different kinetics for different forms of sulfur (for example, thiosulfate, S8, or sulfate) that are likely present in the Archean oceans (1, 30).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Farquhar J., Bao H., Thiemens M., Atmospheric influence of earth’s earliest sulfur cycle. Science 289, 756– 758 (2000). 10926533 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] Ono S., Eigenbrode J. L., Pavlov A. A., Kharecha P., Rumble D. III, Kasting J. F., Freeman K. H., New insights into Archean sulfur cycle from mass-independent sulfur isotope records from the Hamersley Basin, Australia. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213, 15– 30 (2003). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Replicate analyses (n = 28) of IAEA-S1 yielded 2σ of 0.26, 0.014, and 0.19‰ for δ34S, Δ33S, and Δ36S, respectively.

    “Replicate analyses (n = 28) of a reference material, IAEA-S1, yielded 2σ (2 SDs) of 0.26, 0.014, and 0.19‰ for δ34S, Δ33S and Δ36S, respectively (70).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [70] Ono S., Keller N., Rouxel O., Alt J., Sulfur-33 constraints on the origin of secondary pyrite in altered ocean basement. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 87, 323– 340 (2012). source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Microbial sulfate reduction depends not only on sulfate but also on the availability and quality of electron donors, and pyrite burial depends on the reactivity and availability of iron.

    “Microbial sulfate reduction depends not only on sulfate but also on the availability and quality of electron donors (72), and pyrite burial depends on the reactivity and availability of iron (73).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [72] Sim M. S., Ono S., Donovan K., Templer S. P., Bosak T., Effect of electron donors on the fractionation of sulfur isotopes by a marine Desulfovibrio sp. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 4244– 4259 (2011). source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [73] Canfield D. E., Reactive iron in marine sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53, 619– 632 (1989). 11539783 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Our work identifies a discrete sequence of geological events during the GOE and provides a new, robust framework for future research on the coevolution of Earth's life and the surface environment.

    “Notwithstanding the remaining geochronological gaps, our work identifies a discrete sequence of geological events during the GOE and thus provides a new, robust framework for future research on the coevolution of Earth’s life and the surface environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The [O] dependency of FBPY is not due to the reoxidation of H2S by O2, which is a net aerobic respiration and does not lead to pyrite precipitation.

    “This [O] dependency is not due to the reoxidation of H2S by O2, which is a net aerobic respiration and does not lead to pyrite precipitation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
34 of 34

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Sulfide weathering was coupled to pO2.

    “We assumed that sulfide weathering was coupled to pO2, and volcanic sulfur fluxes were scaled to the outgassing rate of reducing gases (63).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Volcanic sulfur fluxes were scaled to the outgassing rate of reducing gases.

    “We assumed that sulfide weathering was coupled to pO2, and volcanic sulfur fluxes were scaled to the outgassing rate of reducing gases (63).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Sulfate burial is proportional to seawater sulfate content.

    “Sulfate burial is proportional to seawater sulfate content.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Pyrite burial is governed by microbial sulfate reduction dependent on sulfate content and on pO2.

    “Pyrite burial is assumed to be governed by microbial sulfate reduction dependent on sulfate content and on pO2 to account for the influence of quality and availability of organic matter to sulfate-reducing microbes.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The sulfate reduction sink is first order with respect to sulfate concentration and residence times were similar.

    “Thus, assuming that the sulfate reduction sink is first order with respect to sulfate concentration and that residence times were similar, expected sulfate levels before the GOE would be at least 10% (and perhaps as much as 30%) of today’s values (2.8 to 8.4 mM).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    A conservative sedimentation rate can be assumed on the basis of previously reported sedimentation rates in slightly older parts of the same basin.

    “Although with some uncertainty, a conservative sedimentation rate can be assumed on the basis of previously reported sedimentation rates in slightly older parts of the same basin—rates that are also similar to modern values (50).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    For the 5-m package, 80% compaction for shale and 50% of time represented by deposition are assumed.

    “Assuming 80% compaction for shale and 50% of time represented by deposition, the duration of the 5-m package is less than 10 My.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    A more rapid sedimentation rate (about 50 m/My) of siliciclastic sediments in a foreland basin and a lower compacted ratio of siltstone/mudstone relative to black shale are assumed.

    “If we assume a more rapid sedimentation rate (about 50 m/My) of siliciclastic sediments in a foreland basin as the Rooihoogte Formation deposited (52) and a lower compacted ratio of the siltstone/mudstone relative to black shale, the transitional interval would represent less than 1 My in time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    CH4 is a strong greenhouse gas.

    “Because CH4 is a strong greenhouse gas”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Aerobic respiration follows Monod kinetics.

    “Aerobic respiration is assumed to follow Monod kinetics with a half-saturation constant at 0.01 PAL pO2 (3.7 × 105 Tmol).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Pyrite burial depends on [S] and [O] with Monod-type dependence on [S].

    “The pyrite burial term is parameterized as a function of [S] and [O] with Monod-type dependence on [S] with the half-saturation at 1.4× 104 Tmol [0.01 mM (71)].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Organic carbon burial is independent of [O].

    “Following Goldblatt et al. (54), FBORG is assumed to be independent of [O].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The concentration of organic carbon is at steady state.

    “We assume steady state for [CORG] and solved FFERM, which produced [M] at one-half stoichiometry (fig. S3).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Oxidative weathering of organics and pyrite follows a power function and Monod kinetics with respect to [O].

    “Oxidative weathering of organics on land (FWO) and of pyrite (FWPY) are assumed to follow a power function and Monod kinetics with respect to [O].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Hydrogen escape to space is first order with respect to [M].

    “FESC is the hydrogen escape to space (taken as the first order to [M]) and is a net sink for [O] and [M].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The source of O2 in the model atmosphere-ocean system is oxygenic photosynthesis.

    “The source of O2 in the model atmosphere-ocean system is oxygenic photosynthesis (FPROD).”
16 of 16

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • O2 from cyanobacterial ancestors flooded the atmosphere rapidly between 2.4 and 2.3 Ga, with the transition marked by the sudden disappearance of mass-independent fractionation (MIF) of sulfur isotopes.

    “The O2 from cyanobacterial ancestors flooded the atmosphere rapidly at a time between 2.4 and 2.3 Ga, with the transition marked in the rocks by the sudden disappearance of mass-independent fractionation (MIF) of sulfur isotopes (discussed in detail later) (7, 8).”

    From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [7]

    The Discussion (page not specified) describes a rapid rise in atmospheric oxygen around 2.33 Ga, accompanied by the disappearance of sulfur MIF signals; the Introduction explains why that disappearance is used to trace oxygenation. Materials and Methods identifies oxygenic photosynthesis as the model’s O2 source, but the paper does not identify cyanobacterial ancestors as the source of the oxygen. Its measured threshold is pO2 above about 10⁻⁵ of the present atmospheric level, so “flooded the atmosphere” overstates what the isotope evidence establishes. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 81 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. H. D. Holland The Chemistry of the Atmosphere and Oceans (Wiley-Interscience New York 1978)
  2. H. C. Dorland Provenance ages and timing of sedimentation of selected Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic successions on the Kaapvaal craton thesis Rand Afrikaans University (2004).
  3. L. L. Coetzee Genetic stratigraphy of the Paleoproterozoic Pretoria Group in the western Transvaal thesis Rand Afrikaans University (2001).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Luo, G., Ono, S., Beukes, N. J., Wang, D. T., Xie, S., & Summons, R. E.
Affiliations
  • China University of Geosciences (CN)
  • Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
  • University of Johannesburg (ZA)
Corresponding author
  • Luo, Genming
  • Summons, Roger E.
ORCID
Venue
Science Advances
Publisher
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published
2016-05-06
Volume
2
Issue
5
Pages
e1600134-e1600134
ISSN
2375-2548 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1126/sciadv.1600134
PMC
PMC4928975
OpenAlex
W2371051551
Semantic Scholar
e012e26f4dbd16f7aabed1836228837c209e109e
Cited by
371
References
81
Citations by year
2026: 24 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 6
FWCI
35.36
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • Science Advances (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Funders
  • Simons Foundation (ID0EMDBG7317, N/A)
  • Ames Research Center (ID0EFJBG7318, NNA13AA90A)
  • Division of Earth Sciences (ID0E5OBG7319, EAR-1338810, ID0EXUBG7320)
  • CNNSF (ID0ERZBG7321, 41472170)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Earth Systems and Cosmic Evolution
Keywords
Great Oxidation Event, atmospheric oxygenation, early Paleoproterozoic, sulfur isotopes, diagenetic pyrite, Transvaal Supergroup, rock core, climate perturbation, Snowball Earth, Archean atmosphere, biogeochemical cycles
MeSH terms
Atmosphere, Iron, Oxygen, Sulfides, Earth, Planet, Evolution, Planetary, History, Ancient

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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