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The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelic Drugs: Past, Present, and Future
Open accessAbstract
Plant-based psychedelics, such as psilocybin, have an ancient history of medicinal use. After the first English language report on LSD in 1950, psychedelics enjoyed a short-lived relationship with psychology and psychiatry. Used most notably as aids to psychotherapy for the treatment of mood disorders and alcohol dependence, drugs such as LSD showed initial therapeutic promise before prohibitive legislature in the mid-1960s effectively ended all major psychedelic research programs. Since the early 1990s, there has been a steady revival of human psychedelic research: last year saw reports on the first modern brain imaging study with LSD and three separate clinical trials of psilocybin for depressive symptoms. In this circumspective piece, RLC-H and GMG share their opinions on the promises and pitfalls of renewed psychedelic research, with a focus on the development of psilocybin as a treatment for depression.
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“Classic psychedelics, such as synthetic LSD and psilocybin, which is found in certain mushrooms, have shown promise as aids in psychotherapy e.g., for mood disorders and substance dependence [1, 5, 33].”
From Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities (2023) · cites this paper as [1]
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“In contrast, classical psychedelics are not generally considered to be addictive (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017;Nichols et al., 2017) as animals will not readily self-administer these compounds (Fantegrossi et al., 2008).”
From Psychedelics and Neural Plasticity: Therapeutic Implications (2022) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017
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Cites
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BackgroundA bibliometric analysis of research on psychedelics for depression treatment
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“…in 56 hallucinogenic mushrooms that are largely of the genus Psilocybe – has been gaining 57 prominence in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, treatment-resistant depression, and 58 end-of-life anxiety in palliative care patients (Carhart-Harris & Goodwin, 2017; Siegel et al., 59 2021).”
BackgroundAn Update on Psychoactive Substances: Pharmacology and Toxicology Issues
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“Since the early 1990s, there has been a notable resurgence of interest, commonly referred to the psychedelic renaissance, in utilising psychedelics as a therapeutic tool (Garcia-Romeu et al. 2016; Carhart-Harris and Goodwin 2017; D. Nichols et al. 2017; Nutt 2019; Nutt et al. 2020).”
BackgroundPsilocin fosters neuroplasticity in iPSC-derived human cortical neurons
Schmidt, M., Hoffrichter, A., Davoudi, M., Horschitz, S., Lau, T., Meinhardt, M. W., Spanagel, R., Ladewig, J., Köhr, G., & Koch, P. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.104006.3 · Cited by 9
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Intersections of Psychedelics, Mystical Experiences, and Hypnosis
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“Psychedelic-assisted therapy has shown promise in treatment of a range of problems such as symptoms of depression (R. L. Carhart-Harris & Goodwin, 2017; Polito & Stevenson, 2019), PTSD (Hood, et al., 2024), smoking cessation (Johnson et al., 2014), and pain (Hutten et al., 2019).”
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“…health suffering through these cure-alls have been featured in mainstream media, from Time magazine to Net fl ix, the topic of myriad editorials in neuroscience, psychiatry and public health journals (Anderson, Danforth, and Grob 2020; Carhart-Harris and Goodwin 2017; Nutt and Carhart-Harris 2021).”
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Exploring the Role of Psychedelic Experiences on Wellbeing and Symptoms of Disordered Eating
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“Moreover, hallucino - gen users often report complex motivations beyond simple emotional escape, such as seeking spiritual or transforma - tive experiences (Carhart-Harris & Goodwin, 2017).”
Disengaged: A systematic review of community engagement in psychedelic-assisted therapy research
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“This fundamental limitation and the scarcity of true prospective studies represent a core challenge in psychedelic research (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017).”
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“Once reclassified in the early 1970s as drugs of abuse with no medical value, psyche-delics are again attracting mainstream scientific interest for their therapeutic potential (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017).”
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“The first English language research publication on LSD presented it as a tool for expediting psychotherapy (Busch and Johnson, 1950 , as cited in Carhart-Harris and Goodwin 2017 ).”
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Psilocybin modulates social behaviour in male and female mice in a time-dependent manner
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“Like ketamine, serotonergic psychedelics, such as psilocybin, have demonstrated rapid and long-lasting antidepressant effects following 1 or 2 doses (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017; Griffiths et al., 2016; Goodwin et al., 2022; Raison et al., 2023).”
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“Despite their potential therapeutic effects on post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression [3–5], significant controversy remains regarding the side effects and safety profile of these drugs [6].”
Mele, M. L., & Federici, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1880744 · Cited by 1
“…effects emerge from the interaction between the pharmacological action of the administered compound and the structured clinical intervention context (i.e., the protocolized sequence of preparation, dosing, and integration sessions within which the pharmacological agent is administered) (4).”
InfluentialStrika-Bruneau, L., Elhssaini, C., Fauvel, B., Kervadec, E., Bezo, A., Amirouche, A., Benyamina, A., & Roméo, B. (2026) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811261473436 · Cited by 1
“Compounds such as psilocybin have since demonstrated promising results across several mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and SUDs (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017; Romeo et al., 2021).”
InfluentialLSD reconfigures cortical dynamics through faster brain rhythms and increased fractal dimension
Subramani, V., Nest, T., Pascarella, A., Brunel, J., Mantilla-Ramos, Y.-J., Harel, Y., Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Lioi, G., Farrugia, N., et al. (2026) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-026-10629-7 · Cited by 2
“Across serotonergic psychedelics, attenuation of alpha and beta oscillatory power is a consistent fi nding, reported for N,N-DMT 13,17,72 , 5-MeO-DMT 73 , and psilocybin 14 .”
InfluentialSelf-citationAfter more than sixty years we are still unclear whether LSD has a place in clinical psychiatry
Saniotis, A. (2020) · Research in Psychotherapy Psychopathology Process and Outcome · doi:10.4081/ripppo.2020.464 · Cited by 1
Cognition Enhancers, Psychostimulants, and Psychedelic Drugs
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Presern, E. (2021) · British Journal of General Practice · doi:10.3399/bjgp21x716333 · Cited by 1
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The Central Mechanisms by which illicit drugs lead to addiction
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Alam, Z., & Soma, B. (2023) · The Meducator · doi:10.35493/medu.43.18 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Goodwin, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Carhart-Harris, Robin L
- Venue
- Neuropsychopharmacology
- Published
- 2017-04-26
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 2105-2113
- ISSN
- 0893-133X (ISSN-L)
- 1740-634X
- PMC
- PMC5603818
- OpenAlex
- W2610144880
- Cited by
- 706
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 81 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 12
- FWCI
- 6.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Neuropsychopharmacology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Strong
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Keywords
- psychedelics, psilocybin, LSD, depression treatment, mood disorders, alcoholism, psychedelic drug regulation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Mental Disorders, Hallucinogens, Humans, Psilocybin, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century
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