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The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelic Drugs: Past, Present, and Future
Open accessAbstract
Plant-based psychedelics, such as psilocybin, have an ancient history of medicinal use. After the first English language report on LSD in 1950, psychedelics enjoyed a short-lived relationship with psychology and psychiatry. Used most notably as aids to psychotherapy for the treatment of mood disorders and alcohol dependence, drugs such as LSD showed initial therapeutic promise before prohibitive legislature in the mid-1960s effectively ended all major psychedelic research programs. Since the early 1990s, there has been a steady revival of human psychedelic research: last year saw reports on the first modern brain imaging study with LSD and three separate clinical trials of psilocybin for depressive symptoms. In this circumspective piece, RLC-H and GMG share their opinions on the promises and pitfalls of renewed psychedelic research, with a focus on the development of psilocybin as a treatment for depression.
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“Classic psychedelics, such as synthetic LSD and psilocybin, which is found in certain mushrooms, have shown promise as aids in psychotherapy e.g., for mood disorders and substance dependence [1, 5, 33].”
From Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities (2023) · cites this paper as [1]
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“In contrast, classical psychedelics are not generally considered to be addictive (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017;Nichols et al., 2017) as animals will not readily self-administer these compounds (Fantegrossi et al., 2008).”
From Psychedelics and Neural Plasticity: Therapeutic Implications (2022) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017
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Cites
Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., Umbricht, A., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., Cosimano, M. P., & Klinedinst, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116675513 · Cited by 2,201 · cited 6×
“…clinical development of psychedelics, RLC-H sees it as a potentially exploitable component—especially as it has been shown to be predictive of long-term clinical outcomes (eg, in Johnson et al, 2014; Bogenschutz et al, 2015; Griffiths et al, 2016; Ross et al, 2016; Carhart-Harris et al, 2016a,b).”
BackgroundInfluentialRoss, S., Bossis, A., Guss, J., Agin-Liebes, G., Malone, T., Cohen, B., Mennenga, S. E., Belser, A., Kalliontzi, K., Babb, J., et al. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116675512 · Cited by 1,698
Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5 · Cited by 1,684 · cited 2×
“…et al, 2004, 2006; Vollenweider et al, 1997), psychology (Carhart-Harris et al, 2015, 2016c; Carter et al, 2007; Gouzoulis-Mayfrank et al, 2005; Griffiths et al, 2006; MacLean et al, 2011; Schmid et al, 2015), and psychopharmacology studies with psychedelics (Kometer et al, 2012; Preller et…”
BackgroundCarhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J., Day, C. M. J., Erritzoe, D., Kaelen, M., Bloomfield, M., Rickard, J. A., Forbes, B., Feilding, A., et al. (2016) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(16)30065-7 · Cited by 1,540
Self-citationPilot Study of Psilocybin Treatment for Anxiety in Patients With Advanced-Stage Cancer
Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S., Hagerty, M., McKay, C. R., Halberstadt, A. L., & Greer, G. R. (2011) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116 · Cited by 1,206
Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety
Johnson, M., Richards, W., & Griffiths, R. (2008) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881108093587 · Cited by 1,203
Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colasanti, A., Tyacke, R. J., Leech, R., Malizia, A. L., Murphy, K., et al. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1119598109 · Cited by 1,172
Self-citationPsilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: A proof-of-concept study
Bogenschutz, M. P., Forcehimes, A. A., Pommy, J. A., Wilcox, C. E., Barbosa, P., & Strassman, R. J. (2015) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881114565144 · Cited by 1,151 · cited 3×
“…clinical development of psychedelics, RLC-H sees it as a potentially exploitable component—especially as it has been shown to be predictive of long-term clinical outcomes (eg, in Johnson et al, 2014; Bogenschutz et al, 2015; Griffiths et al, 2016; Ross et al, 2016; Carhart-Harris et al, 2016a,b).”
BackgroundPsilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action
Vollenweider, F. X., Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen, M. F. I., Bäbler, A., Vogel, H., & Hell, D. (1998) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199812010-00024 · Cited by 1,018
5-HT and mechanisms of defence
Deakin, J. F. W., & Graeff, F. G. (1991) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/026988119100500414 · Cited by 1,011
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Trial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression
Carhart-Harris, R., Giribaldi, B., Watts, R., Baker-Jones, M., Murphy-Beiner, A., Murphy, R., Martell, J., Blemings, A., Erritzoe, D., & Nutt, D. J. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2032994 · Cited by 1,391
Self-citationPsychedelics promote structural and functional neural plasticity
Ly, C., Greb, A. C., Cameron, L. P., Wong, J. M., Barragan, E. V., Wilson, P. C., Burbach, K. F., Soltanzadeh Zarandi, S., Sood, A., Paddy, M. R., et al. (2018) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2018.05.022 · Cited by 1,207
REBUS and the anarchic brain: Toward a unified model of the brain action of psychedelics
Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Friston, K. J. (2019) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pr.118.017160 · Cited by 1,180
“There is growing interest in the potential of psychedelics to treat various psychiatric disorders (Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017; Rucker et al., 2018).”
BackgroundPsilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: six-month follow-up
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Day, C. M. J., Rucker, J., Watts, R., Erritzoe, D. E., Kaelen, M., Giribaldi, B., Bloomfield, M., Pilling, S., et al. (2018) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4771-x · Cited by 970
“See Carhart-Harris and Goodwin (2017) for a review of historical and recent trials with psychedelics.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationRoseman, L., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00974 · Cited by 808
“Given the growing evidence favoring the therapeutic value of psychedelics (dos Santos et al., 2016; Rucker et al., 2016; Carhart-Harris and Goodwin, 2017), it is timely that we better understand their therapeutic mechanisms.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Goodwin, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Carhart-Harris, Robin L
- Venue
- Neuropsychopharmacology
- Published
- 2017-04-26
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 2105-2113
- ISSN
- 0893-133X (ISSN-L)
- 1740-634X
- PMC
- PMC5603818
- OpenAlex
- W2610144880
- Cited by
- 706
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 129 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 81 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 12
- FWCI
- 6.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Neuropsychopharmacology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Strong
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Keywords
- psychedelics, psilocybin, LSD, depression treatment, mood disorders, alcoholism, psychedelic drug regulation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Mental Disorders, Hallucinogens, Humans, Psilocybin, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century
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